International trade Unions

Assignment 1: International Trade Unions

Use the  University online library and the Internet to research trade unions in any one country, for example, China or India. You may also select trade unions in particular sectors, for example, shipping or manufacturing industries.

Examine the impact of the trade unions on the efficiency of export operations and resolution of employee grievances. Write a reflective article on the topic. Cite all sources of information you use.

Write your article in a 3-page Word document formatted in APA style. All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.

Assignment 1 Grading Criteria Save Time On Research and Writing Hire a Pro to Write You a 100% Plagiarism-Free Paper. Get My Paper

Described objectives and activities of selected trade unions in a selected country and sector.

Examined impact of trade unions on the efficiency of export operations.

Examined impact of trade unions on resolution of employee grievances.

Selected reliable sources of information and cited sources.

  

Assignment 2: Course Project Task 4

You created a draft outline for your final paper in Module 4 and received facilitator feedback on it. You will have revised the outline by now and conducted further research. Now, write a draft of your final paper.

You may choose not to write the introduction and the conclusion at this stage.

You must develop the body of the paper as completely as you can. Make sure your arguments are logically valid and are supported by information from authoritative sources. Present your arguments and ideas in a persuasive form. Be sure to indicate all quoted material and cite sources.

Create and refine any tables, graphs, charts, or other visual elements you want to include. Create any appendices you may want to use.

List all sources of information you use in the “References” section. References must be cited in the body of the text. References should be from peer-reviewed journals, preferably from the Argosy University online library. Web-based references should be used minimally.

Write the draft paper in a 10-page Word document formatted in APA style. All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.

 

14: International Marketing Channels

Global Perspective: A SINGLE STICK OF DOUBLEMINT TODAY—18 BILLION TOMORROW
Outside a corner candy stand in Shanghai, 10-year-old Zhang Xiaomei folds a piece of Wrigley’s Doublemint gum into her mouth—one of the more than 20 billion sticks the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company will sell in China this year. To reach the flimsy blue plywood stand that serves this customer in pigtails, the minty stick traveled a thousand miles by truck, rusting freighter, tricycle cart, and bicycle—and it is still freshly soft and sugar-dusted at the time it is sold. That’s something of a wonder, given the daunting scale and obstacles in the world’s largest developing country.
Finding reliable distributors, usually by word of mouth, is the first challenge, but seldom the last. Distributors are often state owned and have little incentive to position a brand, let alone an understanding of how to do so. Market coverage, maintaining product quality, and effective presentation at the point of sale are Wrigley’s goals. Wrigley wants its gum consumed within eight months of manufacture; otherwise, the gum dries out or sugar bleeds through the packaging.
Let’s follow the route taken by Zhang Xiaomei’s stick of Doublemint from a factory in Guangzhou on the southern coast of China to a corner stand in Shanghai. The gum is shipped to Shanghai from Guangzhou on a coastal freighter. But off the coast of Zhejiang province, a marine patrol seizes the ship; along with 960,000 packs of gum, the ship is loaded with smuggled cars. The gum and other cargo are seized by customs, while Wrigley waits and frets the whole time about aging. Finally, the gum is released and loaded onto a truck at the Shanghai port, only to face a complicated, bribe-strewn journey through the distribution system on its way to market. Wrigley-hired trucks are often stopped not only by bandits but also by provincial gendarmes demanding exorbitant fees before they let the vehicles pass.
Once the gum gets into Shanghai, Wrigley loses control. Distribution now depends on one of the firms spun off from China’s once-mighty state-owned trading companies. Wholesalers in China do not do much delivering; instead, like Wrigley wholesaler Chen Tuping, they wait in their warehouses for buyers to arrive.
So how does that stick of gum get to Zhang Xiaomei? Wrigley’s legwork, that’s how. Teams of Wrigley representatives walk the streets, talking to shop owners, handing out free Wrigley posters and plastic display stands. Among the targets is Xu Meili, who runs a booth at the Beautiful & Rich Wholesale Market. After a successful sales call, she begins to stock Wrigley’s gum, which she fetches with a tricycle cart from Mr. Chen, the wholesaler, or one of his competitors.
Wrigley salespeople continue visiting small kiosks, like the blue plywood stand in Shanghai. When stocks run low, she rides her bike the few blocks to Ms. Xu’s booth to buy more gum or candy. All of this just to get Zhang Xiaomei a stick of gum.
“The margin isn’t great,” says Wrigley’s international business chief. But for now, he says, the company is content to build market share. He adds: “We’re a very patient company.” To quote a statement on distribution from Wrigley’s Web site, “The modest price of chewing gum means almost everybody can afford to buy it.” The global market for gum is vast, and Wrigley seeks markets in every country it can enter, even where consumers don’t yet chew gum. For example, Wrigley recently invested in new plants in India, where only a very small number of Indians chew gum. But with a population almost as large as China’s, it means big growth if only a small percentage of the 1 billion people buy the product. Wrigley’s global distribution strategy is to ensure that everyone in the world can get gum wherever and whenever he or she wants.
Sources: Craig S. Smith, “Doublemint in China: Distribution Isn’t Double the Fun,” The Wall Street Journal, December 5, 1995, p. B1; James Murphy, “Wrigley Takes Local Tack,” Media, June 1, 2007; http://www.wrigley.com, 2008.
If marketing goals are to be achieved, a product must be made accessible to the target market at an affordable price. Getting the product to the target market can be a costly process if inadequacies within the distribution structure cannot be overcome. Forging an aggressive and reliable channel of distribution may be the most critical and challenging task facing the international marketer. Moreover, some argue that meeting such challenges is a key catalyst to economic development.1
Each market contains a distribution network with many channel choices whose structures are unique and, in the short run, fixed. In some markets, the distribution structure is multilayered, complex, inefficient, even strange, and often difficult for new marketers to penetrate; in others, there are few specialized middlemen except in major urban areas; and in yet others, there is a dynamic mixture of traditional and new, evolving distribution systems available on a global scale. Regardless of the predominating distribution structure, competitive advantage will reside with the marketer best able to build the most efficient channels from among the alternatives available. And as global trade continues to burgeon and physical distribution infrastructures lag, the challenges will be even greater in the 21st century.2
This chapter discusses the basic points involved in making channel decisions: channel structures; distribution patterns; available alternative middlemen; factors affecting choice of channels; and locating, selecting, motivating, and terminating middlemen.
Channel-of-Distribution Structures
In every country and in every market, urban or rural, rich or poor, all consumer and industrial products eventually go through a distribution process. The
distribution process
includes the physical handling and distribution of goods, the passage of ownership (title), and—most important from the standpoint of marketing strategy—the buying and selling negotiations between producers and middlemen and between middlemen and customers.
A host of policy and strategic channel selection issues confronts the international marketing manager. These issues are not in themselves very different from those encountered in domestic distribution, but the resolution of the issues differs because of different channel alternatives and market patterns.
Each country market has a
distribution structure
through which goods pass from producer to user. Within this structure are a variety of middlemen whose customary functions, activities, and services reflect existing competition, market characteristics, tradition, and economic development.
In short, the behavior of channel members is the result of the interactions between the cultural environment and the marketing process. Channel structures range from those with little developed marketing infrastructure, such as those found in many emerging markets, to the highly complex, multilayered system found in Japan.
Import-Oriented Distribution Structure
Traditional channels in developing countries evolved from economies with a strong dependence on imported manufactured goods. In an import-oriented or traditional distribution structure, an importer controls a fixed supply of goods, and the marketing system develops around the philosophy of selling a limited supply of goods at high prices to a small number of affluent customers. In the resulting seller’s market, market penetration and mass distribution are not necessary because demand exceeds supply, and in most cases, the customer seeks the supply from a limited number of middlemen.
This configuration affects the development of intermediaries and their functions. Distribution systems are local rather than national in scope, and the relationship between the importer and any middleman in the marketplace is considerably different from that found in a mass-marketing system. The idea of a channel as a chain of intermediaries performing specific activities and each selling to a smaller unit beneath it until the chain reaches the ultimate consumer is not common in an import-oriented system.
They’re in China, but they aren’t Peking ducks. The birds are for sale in Guangzhou’s free market, the first farmers’ market to be opened in China after the Cultural Revolution. This market was the place where free enterprise found its rebirth after the cultural revolution. Every kind of food is for sale here—from ducks to dogs, from scorpions to dried lizards on sticks.
Because the importer–wholesaler traditionally performs most marketing functions, independent agencies that provide advertising, marketing research, warehousing and storage, transportation, financing, and other facilitating functions found in a developed, mature marketing infrastructure are nonexistent or underdeveloped. Thus few independent agencies to support a fully integrated distribution system develop.
Contrast this situation with the distribution philosophy of mass consumption that prevails in the United States and other industrialized nations. In these markets, one supplier does not dominate supply, supply can be increased or decreased within a given range, and profit maximization occurs at or near production capacity. Generally a buyer’s market exists, and the producer strives to penetrate the market and push goods out to the consumer, resulting in a highly developed channel structure that includes a variety of intermediaries, many of which are unknown in developing markets.
Obviously, few countries fit the import-oriented model today, though the channel structure for chewing gum illustrated in the Global Perspective comes closest to describing a traditional import-oriented structure. As China develops economically, its market system and distribution structure will evolve as well.3 As already discussed, economic development is uneven, and various parts of an economy may be at different stages of development. Channel structures in countries that have historically evolved from an import-oriented base will usually have vestiges of their beginnings reflected in a less than fully integrated system. At the other extreme is the Japanese distribution system with multiple layers of specialized middlemen.
Japanese Distribution Structure
Distribution in Japan has long been considered the most effective nontariff barrier to the Japanese market.4 Even though the market is becoming more open as many traditional modes of operation are eroding in the face of competition from foreign marketers, it still serves as an excellent case study for the pervasive impact culture plays on economic institutions such as national distribution systems. The Japanese distribution structure is different enough from its U.S. or European counterparts that it should be carefully studied by anyone contemplating entry. The Japanese system has four distinguishing features: (1) a structure dominated by many small middlemen dealing with many small retailers, (2) channel control by manufacturers, (3) a business philosophy shaped by a unique culture,5 and (4) laws that protect the foundation of the system—the small retailer.
High Density of Middlemen.
The density of middlemen, retailers, and wholesalers in the Japanese market is unparalleled in any Western industrialized country.6 The traditional Japanese structure serves consumers who make small, frequent purchases at small, conveniently located stores. An equal density of wholesalers supports the high density of small stores with small inventories. It is not unusual for consumer goods to go through three or four intermediaries before reaching the consumer—producer to primary, secondary, regional, and local wholesaler, and finally to retailer to consumer. Exhibits 14.1 and 14.2 illustrate the contrast between shorter U.S. channels and the long Japanese channels.
Exhibit 14.1: Comparison of Distribution Channels between the United States and Japan

While other countries have large numbers of small retail stores, the major difference between small stores (nine or fewer employees) in Japan and the United States is the percentage of total retail sales accounted for by small retailers. In Japan, small stores (94.7 percent of all retail food stores) account for 59.1 percent of retail food sales; in the United States, small stores (90.0 percent of all retail food stores) generate 35.7 percent of food sales. A disproportionate percentage of nonfood sales are made in small stores in Japan as well. Such differences are also reflected in Exhibit 14.2. Notice the American emphasis on supermarkets, discount food stores, and department stores versus the Japanese prevalence of independent groceries and bakers.
Exhibit 14.2: Retail Structure in Three Countries

As we shall see in a subsequent section, profound changes in retailing are occurring in Japan. Although it is still accurate to describe the Japanese market as having a high density of middlemen, the number of small stores is declining as they are being replaced by larger discount and specialty stores. The number of retail stores is down more 9 percent since 2002, and the number of retail stores with a staff of four or fewer dropped more than 15 percent. These small stores serve an important role for Japanese consumers. High population density; the tradition of frequent trips to the store; an emphasis on service, freshness, and quality; and wholesalers who provide financial assistance, frequent deliveries of small lots, and other benefits combine to support the high number of small stores.
Channel Control.
Manufacturers depend on wholesalers for a multitude of services to other members of the distribution network. Financing, physical distribution, warehousing, inventory, promotion, and payment collection are provided to other channel members by wholesalers. The system works because wholesalers and all other middlemen downstream are tied to manufacturers by a set of practices and incentives designed to ensure strong marketing support for their products and to exclude rival competitors from the channel. Wholesalers typically act as agent middlemen and extend the manufacturer’s control through the channel to the retail level.
Control is maintained through the following elements:
1. Inventory financing. Sales are made on consignment with credits extending for several months.
2. Cumulative rebates. Rebates are given annually for any number of reasons, including quantity purchases, early payments, achieving sales targets, performing services, maintaining specific inventory levels, participating in sales promotions, remaining loyal to suppliers, maintaining manufacturer’s price policies, cooperating, and contributing to overall success.
3. Merchandise returns. All unsold merchandise may be returned to the manufacturer.
4. Promotional support. Intermediaries receive a host of displays, advertising layouts, management education programs, in-store demonstrations, and other dealer aids that strengthen the relationship between the middleman and the manufacturer.
Business Philosophy.
Coupled with the close economic ties and dependency created by trade customs and the long structure of Japanese distribution channels is a relationship-oriented business philosophy that emphasizes loyalty, harmony, and friendship. The value system supports long-term dealer–supplier relationships that are difficult to change as long as each party perceives economic advantage. The traditional partner, the insider, generally has the advantage.
A general lack of price competition, the provision of costly services, and other inefficiencies render the cost of Japanese consumer goods among the highest in the world. Indeed, when you just compare paychecks at current exchange rates (that is, GDP per capita), Japanese at $40,000 outearn Americans at $38,165. However, if you take into consideration what those paychecks will buy [that is, GDP per capita at purchase price parity (PPP)], then Americans do better than Japanese at $27,992.7 Such prices create a perfect climate for discounting, which is beginning to be a major factor. The Japanese consumer contributes to the continuation of the traditional nature of the distribution system through frequent buying trips, small purchases, favoring personal service over price, and a proclivity for loyalty to brands perceived to be of high quality. Additionally, Japanese law gives the small retailer enormous advantage over the development of larger stores and competition. All these factors have supported the continued viability of small stores and the established system, though changing attitudes among many Japanese consumers are beginning to weaken the hold traditional retailing has on the market.
Large-Scale Retail Store Law and Its Successor.
Competition from large retail stores had been almost totally controlled by Daitenho—the Large-Scale Retail Store Law (and its more recent incarnations). Designed to protect small retailers from large intruders into their markets, the law required that any store larger than 5,382 square feet (500 square meters) must have approval from the prefecture government to be “built, expanded, stay open later in the evening, or change the days of the month they must remain closed.” All proposals for new “large” stores were first judged by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). Then, if all local retailers unanimously agreed to the plan, it was swiftly approved. However, without approval at the prefecture level, the plan was returned for clarification and modification, a process that could take several years (10 years was not unheard of) for approval. Designed to protect small retailers against competition from large stores, the law had been imposed against both domestic and foreign companies. One of Japan’s largest supermarket chains needed 10 years to get clearance for a new site. Toys “R” Us8 fought rules and regulations for over three years before it gained approval for a store. In addition to the Daitenho, there were myriad licensing rules. One investigation of retail stores uncovered many different laws, each requiring a separate license that had to be met to open a full-service store.
Businesspeople in Japan and the United States see the Japanese distribution system as a major nontariff barrier, and Japanese see it as a major roadblock to improvement of the Japanese standard of living. However, pressure from the United States and the Structural Impediments Initiative (SII) negotiations to pry open new markets for American companies have resulted in relaxation of many of the more onerous restrictions on large retailers, both Japanese and foreign.
Changes in the Japanese Distribution System.
The Structural Impediments Initiative, deregulation, and most recently Wal-Mart9 are causing changes in Japanese distribution practices. Ultimately, however, only local merchants challenging the traditional ways by giving the consumer quality products at competitive, fair prices can bring about the demise of the traditional distribution system. Specialty discounters are sprouting up everywhere, and entrepreneurs are slashing prices by buying direct and avoiding the distribution system altogether. For example, Kojima, a consumer electronics discounter, practices what it calls “global purchasing” and buys merchandise anywhere in the world as cheaply as possible. Kojima’s tie with General Electric enables it to offer a 410-liter GE refrigerator for $640, down from the typical price of $1,925, and to reduce the 550-liter model from $3,462 to $1,585.
The “new” retailers are relatively few and account for no more than 5 percent of retail sales, compared with 14 percent for all specialty discounters in the United States. But the impact extends beyond their share of market because they are forcing the system to change.10 Traditional retailers are modifying marketing and sales strategies in response to the new competition as well so as to take advantage of changing Japanese lifestyles. There are also indications that some wholesalers are modernizing and consolidating operations as more retailers demand to buy direct from the manufacturer or from the largest wholesalers. The process is slow because the characteristics of the distribution system are deeply rooted in the cultural history of Japan. However, the long supply chain consisting of many layers of middlemen in Japan is vulnerable to the efficiencies that business-to-business (B2B) commerce provides. Because the Internet allows suppliers and retailers to seek the cheapest price in the global market, it will be harder for the many Japanese middlemen to maintain the control they have had.
Similarly, traditional Japanese retailing is slowly giving ground to specialty stores, supermarkets, discounters, and convenience stores. Fast Retailing, a casual-clothing retailer, features good clothes at bargain prices. The store can sell cheaply without lowering quality because it shuns the traditional middlemen and designs its own clothes and sources them directly from factories in China. In 12 months, Fast Retailing’s sales jumped by one-third to $927 million, just as Japanese retail sales showed their 36th consecutive monthly drop.
Konbini, as convenience stores are called in Japan, are among those retailers bringing about a revolution in Japanese retailing. Besides the traditional array of convenience goods, konbini are adding an Internet feature whereby customers can pay bills, bank, or purchase travel packages, music, and merchandise on in-store terminals or over the Internet at home. With its 8,000 outlets, 7-Eleven Japan has a joint venture with www.7dream.com. Instead of offering door-to-door delivery, 7dream wants to lure customers to the nearest 7-Eleven store to pay and pick up purchases. What seemed to be an impenetrable tradition-bound distribution system just a few years ago now appears to be on the verge of radical change. Japanese retailing seems to be following a direction similar to that of the United States decades earlier and may not be recognizable in a decade or two.
Trends: From Traditional to Modern Channel Structures
Today, few countries are sufficiently isolated to be unaffected by global economic and political changes. These currents of change are altering all levels of the economic fabric, including the distribution structure. Traditional channel structures are giving way to new forms, new alliances, and new processes—some more slowly than others, but all are changing.11 Pressures for change in a country come from within and without. Multinational marketers are seeking ways to profitably tap market segments that are served by costly, traditional distribution systems. In India the familiar clutter12 of traditional retailers is fast giving way to the wide aisles13 of new local and foreign super markets. Direct marketing, door-to-door selling, hypermarkets, discount houses, shopping malls, catalog selling, the Internet, and other distribution methods are being introduced in an attempt to provide efficient distribution channels. Importers and retailers also are becoming more involved in new product development;14 for example, the Mexican appliance and electronics giant Grupo Elektra has formed an alliance with Beijing Automobile Works Group to develop and build low-cost cars for Mexico and export markets.15

CROSSING BORDERS 14.1: Big-Box Cookie-Cutter Stores Don’t Always Work
Wal-Mart, JCPenney, Office Depot, and Starbucks are all going global with their successful U.S. operating strategies. However, adaptation is still important, and many have had to adapt their operating strategy to accommodate cultural and business differences. Growth strategies must be supported by three foundations: (1) The retailer must offer a competitively superior assortment of products as defined by local customers, (2) the retailer must be able to develop superior economies across the value chain that delivers the product to the local consumer, and (3) global retailers must be able to execute in the local environment.
Consider, for example, some of the problems U.S. retailers have had when building their global strategies on these three pillars.
• In fashion and clothing markets, personal taste is critical in the buying decision. Distinctions in culture, climate, and even physiology demand that products be tailored to each market. Tight skirts, blouses, and any other article that tightly hugs the female silhouette are sure sellers in southern Europe and are sure losers in the north. Dutch women bicycle to work, so tight skirts are out. French men insist that trousers be suitable for cuffs; German men cannot be bothered with cuffs. Rayon and other artificial fabrics are impossible to sell in Germany, but next door in Holland, artificial fabrics are popular because they are much cheaper.
• The best-selling children’s lines in northern Europe don’t have a significant following in France; the French dress their children as little adults, not as kids. One of the best sellers is a downsized version of a women’s clothing line for girls.
• Operational costs vary too. Costs in the United States, where the minimum wage is $7.75 per hour, are dramatically different than in France, where the minimum wage is over $10.00, including employer social charges. As a consequence, Toys “R” Us has been forced to adapt its operating structure in France, where it uses one-third fewer employees per store than it does in the United States.
• The image of Sam Walton’s English setter on packages of its private-label dog food, Ol’ Roy, was replaced with a terrier after Wal-Mart’s German executives explained that terriers are popular in Germany, while setters aren’t familiar.
• Office Depot closed its U.S.-style cookie-cutter stores in Japan and reopened stores one-third the size of the larger ones. Customers were put off by the warehouselike atmosphere and confused by the English-language signs. The new stores have signs in Japanese and are stocked with office products more familiar to Japanese and purchased locally, such as two-ring loose-leaf binders rather than the typical three-ring binders sold in the United States.
Sources: Ernest Beck and Emily Nelson, “As Wal-Mart Invades Europe, Rivals Rush to Match Its Formula,” The Wall Street Journal, October 6, 1999; Amy Chozick, “Foof Revives Starbucks Japan,” The Wall Street Journal Asia, October 24, 2006, p. 19.
Some important trends in distribution will eventually lead to greater commonality than disparity among middlemen in different countries. Wal-Mart, for example, is expanding all over the world—from Mexico to Brazil and from Europe to Asia.16 The only major disappointment for the American juggernaut has been it lack of scale and profits in South Korea; in 2006 the firm sold its five stores there.17 Avon is expanding into eastern Europe; Mary Kay Cosmetics and Amway into China; and L.L. Bean and Lands’ End have successfully entered the Japanese market. The effect of all these intrusions into the traditional distribution systems is change that will make discounting, self-service, supermarkets, mass merchandising, and e-commerce concepts common all over the world, elevating the competitive climate to a level not known before.
As U.S. retailers have invaded Europe, staid, nationally based retailers have been merging with former competitors and companies from other countries to form Europewide enterprises.18 Carrefour, a French global marketer, merged with Promodes, one of its fierce French competitors, to create, in the words of its CEO, “a worldwide retail leader.” The U.K. supermarket giant Sainsbury has entered an alliance with Esselunga of Italy (supermarkets), Docks de France (hypermarkets, supermarkets, and discount stores), and Belgium’s Delhaize (supermarkets). The alliance provides the four companies the opportunity to pool their experience and buying power to better face growing competition and opportunity afforded by the single European market and the euro.
While European retailers see a unified Europe as an opportunity for pan-European expansion, foreign retailers are attracted by the high margins and prices. Costco, the U.S.-based warehouse retailer, saw the high gross margins that British supermarkets command (7 to 8 percent compared with 2.5 to 3 percent in the United States) as an opportunity. Costco prices will initially be 10 to 20 percent cheaper than rival local retailers.
Expansion outside the home country, as well as new types of retailing, is occurring throughout Europe. El Corte Inglés, Spain’s largest department store chain, not only is moving into Portugal and other European countries but also was one of the first retailers to offer a virtual supermarket on the Internet (www.elcorteingles.es) and to sponsor two 24-hour home shopping channels in Spain. Increasingly smaller retailers are also expanding overseas.19 Another Spanish retailer, Mango, has opened a store in New York City and, along with other European competitors, is taking advantage of low costs of operation in the United States associated with the sinking dollar.20
One of Wal-Mart’s strengths is its internal Internet-based system, which makes its transactions with suppliers highly efficient and lowers its cost of operations. Indeed, it is buying ailing retailers around the world with the intention of “saving them” with its distribution technologies. This same type of system is available on the Internet for both business-to-business and business-to-consumer transactions. For example, General Motors, Ford Motor Company, and DaimlerChrysler have created a single online site called Covisint (www.covisint.com) for purchasing automotive parts from suppliers, which is expected to save the companies millions of dollars. A typical purchase order costs Ford $150, whereas a real-time order via Covisint will cost about $15. Sears, Roebuck and Carrefour of France have created GlobalNetXchange (www.gnx.com), a retail exchange that allows retailers and their suppliers to conduct transactions online. Any company with a Web browser can access the exchange to buy, sell, trade, or auction goods and services. Described as “one of the most dramatic changes in consumer-products distribution of the decade,” the exchange is expected to lower costs for both buyer and supplier. As more such exchanges evolve, one can only speculate about the impact on traditional channel middlemen.
We have already seen the impact on traditional retailing within the last few years caused by e-commerce retailers such as Amazon.com, Dell Computer, eBay, and others—all of which are expanding globally. Most brick-and-mortar retailers are experimenting with or have fully developed Web sites, some of which are merely extensions of their regular stores, allowing them to extend their reach globally. L.L. Bean, Eddie Bauer, and Lands’ End are examples.
One of the most challenging aspects of Web sales is delivery of goods. As discussed previously, one of the innovative features of the 7dream program at 7-Eleven stores in Japan is the use of convenience stores for pick-up points for Web orders. It has worked so well in Japan that Ito-Yokado Corporation, owner of 7-Eleven Japan and 72 percent of the U.S. chain, is exporting the idea to U.S. stores. In the Dallas–Fort Worth area, 250 stores have installed ATM-like machines tied into a delivery and payment system that promises to make 7-Eleven stores a depot for e-commerce. FedEx, UPS, and other package delivery services that have been the backbone of e-commerce delivery in the United States are offering similar services for foreign customers of U.S. e-commerce companies, as well as for foreign-based e-commerce companies. When goods cross borders, UPS and others offer seamless shipments, including customs and brokerage. Most of these service companies are established in Europe and Japan and are building networks in Latin America and China.
Now that Russians can own their homes, they’re spending fast in home improvement stores like this one in St. Petersburg. In English it would be called “Super Home.”
The impact of these and other trends will change traditional distribution and marketing systems.21 While this latest retailing revolution remains in flux, new retailing and middlemen systems will be invented, and established companies will experiment, seeking ways to maintain their competitive edge. Moreover, it is becoming more dangerous to think of competitors in terms of individual companies—in international business generally, and distribution systems particularly, a networks perspective is increasingly required. That is, firms must be understood in the context of the commercial networks of which they are a part.22 These changes will resonate throughout the distribution chain before new concepts are established and the system stabilizes. Not since the upheaval that occurred in U.S. distribution after World War II that ultimately led to the Big-Box type of retailer has there been such potential for change in distribution systems. This time, however, such change will not be limited mostly to the United States—it will be worldwide.
Distribution Patterns
Even though patterns of distribution are in a state of change and new patterns are developing, international marketers need a general awareness of the traditional distribution base. The “traditional” system will not change overnight, and vestiges of it will remain for years to come. Nearly every international firm is forced by the structure of the market to use at least some middlemen in the distribution arrangement. It is all too easy to conclude that, because the structural arrangements of foreign and domestic distribution seem alike, foreign channels are the same as or similar to domestic channels of the same name. Only when the varied intricacies of actual distribution patterns are understood can the complexity of the distribution task be appreciated. The following description of differences in retailing should convey a sense of the variety of distribution patterns in general including wholesalers.
PEMEX (Petróleos Mexicanos), the Mexican national oil company, will not let foreign firms distribute there. However, in Malaysia, a Mobil station sits right across the boulevard from a government-owned PETRONAS (Petroliam Nasional) station.
Retail Patterns
Retailing shows even greater diversity in its structure than does wholesaling.23 In Italy and Morocco, retailing is composed largely of specialty houses that carry narrow lines, whereas in Finland, most retailers carry a more general line of merchandise. Retail size is represented at one end by Japan’s giant department store Mitsukoshi, which reportedly enjoys the patronage of more than 100,000 customers every day, and at the other extreme by the market of Ibadan, Nigeria, where some 3,000 one- or two-person stalls serve not many more customers. Some manufacturers sell directly to consumers through company-owned stores such as Cartier and Disney,24 and some sell through a half-dozen layers of middlemen.
Size Patterns.
The extremes in size in retailing are similar to those that predominate in wholesaling. Exhibit 14.3 dramatically illustrates some of the variations in size and number of retailers per person that exist in some countries. The retail structure and the problems it engenders cause real difficulties for the international marketing firm selling consumer goods. Large dominant retailers can be sold to directly, but there is no adequate way to reach small retailers who, in the aggregate, handle a great volume of sales. In Italy, official figures show there are 931,000 retail stores, or one store for every 63 Italians. Of the 269,000 food stores, fewer than 10,000 can be classified as large. Thus retailers are a critical factor in adequate distribution in Italy.
Exhibit 14.3: Retail Structure in Selected Countries

Underdeveloped countries present similar problems. Among the large supermarket chains in South Africa, there is considerable concentration. Of the country’s 31,000 stores, 1,000 control 60 percent of all grocery sales, leaving the remaining 40 percent of sales to be spread among 30,000 stores. To reach the 40 percent of the market served by those 30,000 stores may be difficult. In black communities in particular, retailing is on a small scale—cigarettes are often sold singly, and the entire fruit inventory may consist of four apples in a bowl.
Retailing around the world has been in a state of active ferment for several years. The rate of change appears to be directly related to the stage and speed of economic development, and even the least developed countries are experiencing dramatic changes. Supermarkets of one variety or another are blossoming in developed and underdeveloped countries alike. Discount houses that sell everything from powdered milk and canned chili to Korean TVs and DVD players are thriving and expanding worldwide.25

Direct Marketing.
Selling directly to the consumer through mail, by telephone, or door-to-door is often the approach of choice in markets with insufficient or underdeveloped distribution systems. The approach, of course, also works well in the most affluent markets. Amway, operating in 42 foreign countries, has successfully expanded into Latin America and Asia with its method of direct marketing. Companies that enlist individuals to sell their products are proving to be especially popular in eastern Europe and other countries where many people are looking for ways to become entrepreneurs. In the Czech Republic, for example, Amway Corporation signed up 25,000 Czechs as distributors and sold 40,000 starter kits at $83 each in its first two weeks of business. Avon is another American company that is expanding dramatically overseas.
Direct sales through catalogs have proved to be a successful way to enter foreign markets. In Japan, it has been an important way to break the trade barrier imposed by the Japanese distribution system. For example, a U.S. mail-order company, Shop America, teamed up with 7-Eleven Japan to distribute catalogs in its 4,000 stores. Shop America sells items such as compact discs, Canon cameras, and Rolex watches for 30 to 50 percent less than Tokyo stores; a Canon Autoboy camera sells for $260 in Tokyo and $180 in the Shop America catalog.
Many catalog companies are finding they need to open telephone service centers in a country to accommodate customers who have questions or problems. Hanna Andersson (the children’s clothing manufacturer), for example, received complaints that it was too difficult to get questions answered and to place orders by telephone, so it opened a service center with 24 telephone operators to assist customers who generate over $5 million in sales annually. Many catalog companies also have active Web sites that augment their catalog sales.
Resistance to Change.
Efforts to improve the efficiency of the distribution system, new types of middlemen, and other attempts to change traditional ways are typically viewed as threatening and are thus resisted.26 A classic example is the restructuring of the film distribution business being caused by the fast changing technologies of digitization and piracy. Laws abound that protect the entrenched in their positions. In Italy, a new retail outlet must obtain a license from a municipal board composed of local tradespeople. In a two-year period, some 200 applications were made and only 10 new licenses granted. Opposition to retail innovation is everywhere, yet in the face of all the restrictions and hindrances, self-service, discount merchandising, liberal store hours, and large-scale merchandising continue to grow because they offer the consumer convenience and a broad range of quality product brands at advantageous prices. Ultimately the consumer does prevail.
CROSSING BORDERS 14.2: It Depends on What “Not Satisfied” Means
Amway’s policy is that dissatisfied customers can get a full refund at any time, no questions asked—even if the returned bottles are empty. This refund policy is a courtesy to customers and a testament that the company stands behind its products, and it is the same all over the world. But such capitalistic concepts are somewhat unfamiliar in China.
The best game in town for months among the rising ranks of Shanghai’s entrepreneurs was an $84 investment for a box of soaps and cosmetics that they could sell as Amway distributors. Word of this no-lose proposition quickly spread, with some people repackaging the soap, selling it, and then turning in the containers for a refund. Others dispensed with selling altogether and scoured garbage bins instead, showing up at Amway’s Shanghai offices with bags full of bottles to be redeemed.
One salesman got nearly $10,000 for eight sacks full of all kinds of empty Amway containers. And at least one barbershop started using Amway shampoos for free and returning each empty bottle for a full refund. In a few weeks, refunds were totaling more than $100,000 a day. “Perhaps we were too lenient,” said Amway’s Shanghai chief. Amway changed the policy, only to have hundreds of angry Amway distributors descend on the company’s offices to complain that they were cheated out of their money. Amway had to call a press conference to explain that it wasn’t changing its refund policy, simply raising the standard for what is deemed dissatisfaction. If someone returns half a bottle, fine, but for empties, Amway announced it would check records to see if the person had a pattern of return.
But the company did not anticipate the unusual sense of entitlement it had engendered in China. The satisfaction-guaranteed policy did not spell out specifically what dissatisfaction meant, something people in the Western world understood. “We thought that it would be understood here, too.” The change in policy left some dissatisfied. One distributor protested, “Don’t open a company if you can’t afford losses.” Despite these initial problems, Amway apparently is learning the market—the company doubled its sales last year in China to $2 billion.
Sources: Craig S. Smith, “Distribution Remains the Key Problem for Market Makers,” Business China, May 13, 1996, p. 4; “In China, Some Distributors Have Really Cleaned Up with Amway,” The Wall Street Journal, August 4, 1997, p. B1; “Avon Forays into Healthcare Sector via Direct Sales,” SinoCast China Business Daily News, January 14, 2008, p. 1.
Alternative Middleman Choices
A marketer’s options range from assuming the entire distribution activity (by establishing its own subsidiaries and marketing directly to the end user) to depending on intermediaries for distribution of the product. Channel selection must be given considerable thought because once initiated, it is difficult to change, and if it proves inappropriate, future growth of market share may be affected.
The channel process includes all activities, beginning with the manufacturer and ending with the final consumer. This inclusion means the seller must exert influence over two sets of channels: one in the home country and one in the foreign-market country. Exhibit 14.4 shows some of the possible channel-of-distribution alternatives. The arrows show those to whom the producer and each of the middlemen might sell. In the home country, the seller must have an organization (generally the international marketing division of a company) to deal with channel members needed to move goods between countries. In the foreign market, the seller must supervise the channels that supply the product to the end user. Ideally, the company wants to control or be directly involved in the process through the various channel members to the final user. To do less may result in unsatisfactory distribution and the failure of marketing objectives. In practice, however, such involvement throughout the channel process is not always practical or cost effective. Consequently, selection of channel members and effective controls are high priorities in establishing the distribution process.
Exhibit 14.4: International Channel-of-Distribution Alternatives

Once the marketer has clarified company objectives and policies, the next step is the selection of specific intermediaries needed to develop a channel. External middlemen are differentiated according to whether or not they take title to the goods:
Agent middlemen
work on commission and arrange for sales in the foreign country but do not take title to the merchandise. By using agents, the manufacturer assumes trading risk but maintains the right to establish policy guidelines and prices and to require its agents to provide sales records and customer information.
Merchant middlemen
actually take title to manufacturers’ goods and assume the trading risks, so they tend to be less controllable than agent middlemen. Merchant middlemen provide a variety of import and export wholesaling functions involved in purchasing for their own account and selling in other countries. Because merchant middlemen primarily are concerned with sales and profit margins on their merchandise, they are frequently criticized for not representing the best interests of a manufacturer. Unless they have a franchise or a strong and profitable brand, merchant middlemen seek goods from any source and are likely to have low brand loyalty. Ease of contact, minimized credit risk, and elimination of all merchandise handling outside the United States are some of the advantages of using merchant middlemen.
Middlemen are not clear-cut, precise, easily defined entities. A firm that represents one of the pure types identified here is rare. Thus intimate knowledge of middlemen functions is especially important in international activity because misleading titles can fool a marketer unable to look beyond mere names. What are the functions of a British middleman called a stockist, or one called an exporter or importer? One exporter may, in fact, be an agent middleman, whereas another is a merchant. Many, if not most, international middlemen wear several hats and can be clearly identified only in the context of their relationship with a specific firm.
Only by analyzing middlemen functions in skeletal simplicity can the nature of the channels be determined. Three alternatives are presented: first, middlemen physically located in the manufacturer’s home country; next, middlemen located in foreign countries; and finally, government-affiliated middlemen.
Home-Country Middlemen

Home-country middlemen, or domestic middlemen, located in the producing firm’s country, provide marketing services from a domestic base. By selecting domestic middlemen as intermediaries in the distribution processes, companies relegate foreign-market distribution to others. Domestic middlemen offer many advantages for companies with small international sales volume, those inexperienced with foreign markets, those not wanting to become immediately involved with the complexities of international marketing, and those wanting to sell abroad with minimal financial and management commitment. A major trade-off when using home-country middlemen is limited control over the entire process. Domestic middlemen are most likely to be used when the marketer is uncertain or desires to minimize financial and management investment. A brief discussion of the more frequently used types of domestic middlemen follows.
Manufacturers’ Retail Stores.
An important channel of distribution for a large number of manufacturers is the owned, or perhaps franchised, retail store. Disney, Benetton, and many of the classic Italian luxury goods makers take this approach.
Global Retailers.
As global retailers like IKEA, Costco, Sears Roebuck, Toys “R” Us, and Wal-Mart expand their global coverage, they are becoming major domestic middlemen for international markets.27 Wal-Mart, with more than 3,000 stores in 13 foreign markets, is an attractive entry point to international markets for U.S. suppliers. Wal-Mart offers an effective way to enter international markets with a minimum of experience. For example, Pacific Connections, a California manufacturer of handbags with $70 million in sales, ventured into overseas markets in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and Mexico through its ties to Wal-Mart. And as trade restrictions are eased through alliances such as NAFTA, new global retailers are being created—Gigante from Mexico is a good example of this trend.
Export Management Companies.
The export management company (EMC) is an important middleman for firms with relatively small international volume or those unwilling to involve their own personnel in the international function. These EMCs range in size from 1 person upward to 100 and handle about 10 percent of the manufactured goods exported. An example of an EMC is a Washington, D.C.–based company that has exclusive agreements with 10 U.S. manufacturers of orthopedic equipment and markets these products on a worldwide basis.
Remember for a moment the scene in the Pixar movie Monsters Inc.—millions of doors on conveyor belts. That scene is reminiscent of the inside of the Nike’s European distribution center in Laakdal, Belgium. The shoes come from a variety of Asian low-cost manufacturers and arrive at the center via Rotterdam and Antwerp and the adjacent canal. Twelve hundred people work at the heavily automated facility where 8 million pairs of shoes are sorted and then shipped to customers all over the continent via truck. Even as sales grow, the company will not need to expand the center, because the trend is for the factories to ship directly to the major European retailers, including the Nike Sport in St. Petersburg pictured in Chapter 10.
Typically, the EMC becomes an integral part of the marketing operations of its client companies. Working under the names of the manufacturers, the EMC functions as a low-cost, independent marketing department with direct responsibility to the parent firm. The working relationship is so close that customers are often unaware they are not dealing directly with the export department of the company (see Exhibit 14.5).
Exhibit 14.5: How Does an EMC Operate?

The export management company may take full or partial responsibility for promotion of the goods, credit arrangements, physical handling, market research, and information on financial, patent, and licensing matters. An EMC’s specialization in a given field often enables it to offer a level of service that could not be attained by the manufacturer without years of groundwork. Traditionally, the EMC works on commission, though an increasing number are buying products on their own account.
Two of the chief advantages of EMCs are minimum investment on the part of the company to get into international markets, and no commitment of company personnel or major expenditure of managerial effort. The result, in effect, is an extension of the market for the firm with negligible financial or personnel commitments.
The major disadvantage is that EMCs seldom can afford to make the kind of market investment needed to establish deep distribution for products because they must have immediate sales payout to survive. Such a situation does not offer the market advantages gained by a company that can afford to use company personnel. Carefully selected EMCs can do an excellent job, but the manufacturer must remember that the EMC is dependent on sales volume for compensation and probably will not push the manufacturer’s line if it is spread too thinly, generates too small a volume from a given principal, or cannot operate profitably in the short run. In such cases, the EMC becomes an order taker and not the desired substitute for an international marketing department.
Trading Companies.
Trading companies have a long and honorable history as important intermediaries in the development of trade between nations. Trading companies accumulate, transport, and distribute goods from many countries. In concept, the trading company has changed little in hundreds of years.
The British firm Gray MacKenzie and Company is typical of companies operating in the Middle East. It has some 70 salespeople and handles consumer products ranging from toiletries to outboard motors and Scotch whiskey. The key advantage to this type of trading company is that it covers the entire Middle East.
Large, established trading companies generally are located in developed countries; they sell manufactured goods to developing countries and buy raw materials and unprocessed goods. Japanese trading companies (sogo shosha) date back to the early 1700s and operate both as importers and exporters.28 Some 300 are engaged in foreign and domestic trade through 2,000 branch offices outside Japan and handle over $1 trillion in trading volume annually. Japanese trading companies account for 61 percent of all Japanese imports and 39 percent of all exports, or about one-fifth of Japan’s entire GDP.
For companies seeking entrance into the complicated Japanese distribution system, the Japanese trading company offers one of the easiest routes to success. The omnipresent trading companies virtually control distribution through all levels of channels in Japan. Because trading companies may control many of the distributors and maintain broad distribution channels, they provide the best means for intensive coverage of the market.29

U.S. Export Trading Companies.
The Export Trading Company (ETC) Act allows producers of similar products to form export trading companies. A major goal of the ETC Act was to increase U.S. exports by encouraging more efficient export trade services to producers and suppliers to improve the availability of trade finance and to remove antitrust disincentives to export activities. By providing U.S. businesses with an opportunity to obtain antitrust preclearance for specified export activities, the ETC Act created a more favorable environment for the formation of joint export ventures. Through such joint ventures, U.S. firms can take advantage of economies of scale, spread risk, and pool their expertise. In addition, through joint selling arrangements, domestic competitors can avoid interfirm rivalry in foreign markets. Prior to the passage of the ETC Act, competing companies could not engage in joint exporting efforts without possible violation of antitrust provisions. The other important provision of the ETC Act permits bank holding companies to own ETCs.
Immediately after passage of the ETC Act, several major companies (General Electric, Sears Roebuck, Kmart, and others) announced the development of export trading companies. In most cases, these export firms did not require the protection of the ETC Act since they initially operated independently of other enterprises. They provided international sales for U.S. companies to a limited extent, but primarily they operated as trading companies for their own products. To date, many of the trading companies (particularly the bank-owned ones) established after passage of the ETC Act have closed their doors or are languishing.
Recall that the Japanese are the world-champion fish consumers at nearly 40 kg per person per year—see Exhibit 4.2. Consequently, just as world prices for cut flowers are set at the Aalsmeer Flower Auction in the Netherlands, world prices for fish are set at the Tsukigi fish market in Tokyo. A big fresh bluefin tuna caught in the Atlantic, iced and shipped by air to Tokyo, can bring $10,000 at auction, and then be shipped by air back to Boston for hungry sushi consumers. Perhaps the market is “too efficient,” as the world now faces a shortage of such tuna.
Complementary Marketers.
Companies with marketing facilities or contacts in different countries with excess marketing capacity or a desire for a broader product line sometimes take on additional lines for international distribution; though the formal name for such activities is
complementary marketing
, it is commonly called piggybacking. General Electric Company has been distributing merchandise from other suppliers for many years. It accepts products that are noncompetitive but complementary and that add to the basic distribution strength of the company itself. The classic example was Gillette distributing batteries in less developed countries.
Most piggyback arrangements are undertaken when a firm wants to fill out its product line or keep its seasonal distribution channels functioning throughout the year. Companies may work either on an agency or merchant basis, but the greatest volume of piggyback business is handled on an ownership (merchant) purchase-and-resale arrangement. The selection process for new products for piggyback distribution determines whether (1) the product relates to the product line and contributes to it, (2) the product fits the sales and distribution channel presently employed, (3) the margin is adequate to make the undertaking worthwhile, and (4) the product will find market acceptance and profitable volume. If these requirements are met, piggybacking can be a logical way of increasing volume and profit for both the carrier and the piggybacker.
Manufacturer’s Export Agent.
The manufacturer’s export agent (MEA) is an individual agent middleman or an agent middleman firm providing a selling service for manufacturers. Unlike the EMC, the MEA does not serve as the producer’s export department but has a short-term relationship, covers only one or two markets, and operates on a straight commission basis. Another principal difference is that MEAs do business in their own names rather than in the name of the client. Within a limited scope of operation, the MEAs provide services similar to those of the EMC.
Webb-Pomerene Export Associations.

Webb-Pomerene export associations (WPEAs) are another major form of group exporting. The Webb-Pomerene Act of 1918 allowed American business firms to join forces in export activities without being subject to the Sherman Antitrust Act. Thus WPEAs cannot participate in cartels or other international agreements that would reduce competition in the United States, but they can offer four major benefits: (1) reduction of export costs, (2) demand expansion through promotion, (3) trade barrier reductions, and (4) improvement of trade terms through bilateral bargaining. Additionally, WPEAs set prices, standardize products, and arrange for disposal of surplus products. Although they account for less than 5 percent of U.S. exports, WPEAs include some of America’s blue-chip companies in agricultural products, chemicals and raw materials, forest products, pulp and paper, textiles, rubber products, motion pictures, and television.
Foreign Sales Corporation.
A foreign sales corporation (FSC) is a sales corporation set up in a foreign country or U.S. possession that can obtain a corporate tax exemption on a portion of the earnings generated by the sale or lease of export property. Manufacturers and export groups can form FSCs. An FSC can function as a principal, buying and selling for its own account, or a commissioned agent. It can be related to a manufacturing parent or can be an independent merchant or broker. The WTO in 2003 ruled FSCs to be in violation of international trade rules, thus starting a major trade dispute with the European Union that still simmers and occasionally sizzles.30

Foreign-Country Middlemen
The variety of agent and merchant middlemen in most countries is similar to that in the United States. International marketers seeking greater control over the distribution process may elect to deal directly with middlemen in the foreign market. They gain the advantage of shorter channels and deal with middlemen in constant contact with the market.
Using foreign-country middlemen moves the manufacturer closer to the market and involves the company more closely with problems of language, physical distribution, communications, and financing. Foreign middlemen may be agents or merchants, they may be associated with the parent company to varying degrees, or they may be hired temporarily for special purposes. Some of the more important foreign-country middlemen are manufacturer’s representatives and foreign distributors.
Government-Affiliated Middlemen
Marketers must deal with governments in every country of the world. Products, services, and commodities for the government’s own use are always procured through government purchasing offices at federal, regional, and local levels. In the Netherlands, the state’s purchasing office deals with more than 10,000 suppliers in 20 countries. About one-third of the products purchased by that agency are produced outside the Netherlands. Finally, regarding the efficiency of the public sector versus the private sector, an important lesson was learned during the 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster—Wal-Mart planned for and delivered aid better than FEMA (the U.S Federal Emergency Management Agency).31
Factors Affecting Choice of Channels
The international marketer needs a clear understanding of market characteristics and must have established operating policies before beginning the selection of channel middlemen. The following points should be addressed prior to the selection process:
1. Identify specific target markets within and across countries.
2. Specify marketing goals in terms of volume, market share, and profit margin requirements.
3. Specify financial and personnel commitments to the development of international distribution.
4. Identify control, length of channels, terms of sale, and channel ownership.
Once these points are established, selecting among alternative middlemen choices to forge the best channel can begin. Marketers must get their goods into the hands of consumers and must choose between handling all distribution or turning part or all of it over to various middlemen.32 Distribution channels vary depending on target market size, competition, and available distribution intermediaries.
Key elements in distribution decisions include the functions performed by middlemen (and the effectiveness with which each is performed), the cost of their services, their availability, and the extent of control that the manufacturer can exert over middlemen activities.
Although the overall marketing strategy of the firm must embody the company’s profit goals in the short and long run, channel strategy itself is considered to have six specific strategic goals. These goals can be characterized as the six Cs of channel strategy: cost, capital, control, coverage, character, and continuity. In forging the overall channel-of-distribution strategy, each of the six Cs must be considered in building an economical, effective distribution organization within the long-range channel policies of the company. It should also be noted that many firms use multiple or hybrid34 channels of distribution because of the trade-offs associated with any one option.35 Indeed, both Dell selling computers at kiosks inside Japan’s Jusco supermarkets and Toys “R” Us selling toys in food stores are good examples.
Cost
The two kinds of channel cost are (1) the capital or investment cost of developing the channel and (2) the continuing cost of maintaining it. The latter can be in the form of direct expenditure for the maintenance of the company’s selling force or in the form of margins, markup, or commissions of various middlemen handling the goods. Marketing costs (a substantial part of which is channel cost) must be considered as the entire difference between the factory price of the goods and the price the customer ultimately pays for the merchandise. The costs of middlemen include transporting and storing the goods, breaking bulk, providing credit, local advertising, sales representation, and negotiations.
Despite the old truism that you can eliminate middlemen but you cannot eliminate their functions or cost, creative, efficient marketing does permit channel cost savings in many circumstances. Some marketers have found, in fact, that they can reduce cost by eliminating inefficient middlemen and thus shortening the channel. Mexico’s largest producer of radio and television sets has built annual sales of $36 million on its ability to sell goods at a low price because it eliminated middlemen, established its own wholesalers, and kept margins low. Conversely, many firms accustomed to using their own sales forces in large-volume domestic markets have found they must lengthen channels of distribution to keep costs in line with foreign markets.
Capital Requirements
The financial ramifications of a distribution policy are often overlooked. Critical elements are capital requirement and cash-flow patterns associated with using a particular type of middleman. Maximum investment is usually required when a company establishes its own internal channels, that is, its own sales force. Use of distributors or dealers may lessen the capital investment, but manufacturers often have to provide initial inventories on consignment, loans, floor plans, or other arrangements. Coca-Cola initially invested in China with majority partners that met most of the capital requirements. However, Coca-Cola soon realized that it could not depend on its local majority partners to distribute its product aggressively in the highly competitive, market-share–driven business of carbonated beverages. To assume more control of distribution, it had to assume management control, and that meant greater capital investment from Coca-Cola. One of the highest costs of doing business in China is the capital required to maintain effective distribution.
Control
The more involved a company is with the distribution, the more control it exerts. A company’s own sales force affords the most control but often at a cost that is not practical. Each type of channel arrangement provides a different level of control;33 as channels grow longer, the ability to control price,34 volume, promotion, and type of outlets diminishes. If a company cannot sell directly to the end user or final retailer, an important selection criterion for middlemen should be the amount of control the marketer can maintain.35 Of course, there are risks in international distribution relationships as well—opportunism and exploitation are two.36 Finally, one of the most alarming examples of distribution channels out of control regards the current worldwide shortage of fish; retailers and distributors in affluent countries literally feed the demands of their voracious customers and kill the fisheries along the way.37

Coverage
Another major goal is full-market coverage to gain the optimum volume of sales obtainable in each market, secure a reasonable market share, and attain satisfactory market penetration. Coverage may be assessed by geographic segments, market segments, or both. Adequate market coverage may require changes in distribution systems from country to country or time to time. Coverage is difficult to extend both in highly developed areas and in sparse markets—the former because of heavy competition and the latter because of inadequate channels.
Many companies do not attempt full-market coverage but seek significant penetration in major population centers. In some countries, two or three cities constitute the majority of the national buying power. For instance, 60 percent of the Japanese population lives in the Tokyo-Nagoya-Osaka market area, which essentially functions as one massive city.
At the other extreme are many developing countries with a paucity of specialized middlemen except in major urban areas. Those that do exist are often small, with traditionally high margins. In China, for example, the often-cited billion-person market is, in reality, confined to fewer than 25 to 30 percent of the population of the most affluent cities. Even as personal income increases in China, distribution inadequacies limit marketers in reaching all those who have adequate incomes. In both extremes, the difficulty of developing an efficient channel from existing middlemen plus the high cost of distribution may nullify efficiencies achieved in other parts of the marketing mix.
To achieve coverage, a company may have to use many different channels—its own sales force in one country, manufacturers’ agents in another, and merchant wholesalers in still another.
Character
The channel-of-distribution system selected must fit the character of the company and the markets in which it is doing business. Some obvious product requirements, often the first considered, relate to the perishability or bulk of the product, complexity of sale, sales service required, and value of the product.
Channel captains must be aware that channel patterns change; they cannot assume that once a channel has been developed to fit the character of both company and market, no more need be done. Great Britain, for example, has epitomized distribution through specialty-type middlemen, distributors, wholesalers, and retailers; in fact, all middlemen have traditionally worked within narrow product specialty areas. In recent years, however, there has been a trend toward broader lines, conglomerate merchandising, and mass marketing. The firm that neglects the growth of self-service, scrambled merchandising, or discounting may find it has lost large segments of its market because its channels no longer reflect the character of the market.
You can buy just about anything at Stockmann’s Department Store in Helsinki—men’s and women’s fashions, hardware (hammers, etc.) and software, bakery goods and garden supplies, fillet of reindeer and furniture, televisions—yes, everything from Audi A3s to zuccini. It even has cold storage services for your mink. But Stockmann’s doesn’t stock Samsung cell phones. The Korean company hasn’t yet penetrated Nokia’s home market. Of course, the product line is thin but rich at Cartier’s in Paris. And you can find the Samsung at the Grand Bazaar (Kapali Carsi) in Istanbul, billed as the oldest and largest covered marketplace in the world. The 15th-century mall competes for customers with its 20th-century cousin, Akmerkez Etiler, in a high-income neighborhood about 10 miles away. Finally, Louis meets Lenin here on Red Square in Moscow. Russians now go for the luxury brands at the old government department store (still with the unattractive name, Gum), recently transformed into a 800,000 square foot in-door, high-end shopping mall. You can see St. Basil’s Cathedral in the background, and just 200 meters across the square Comrade Vladimir Lenin’s embalmed body is entombed in a chilly mausoleum. While the old communist isn’t too happy about free enterprise disturbing his view, he certainly must be pleased about the 2008 resumption of the annual Red Square May Day military parade after its seventeen-year hiatus.
Continuity
Channels of distribution often pose longevity problems. Most agent middlemen firms tend to be small institutions. When one individual retires or moves out of a line of business, the company may find it has lost its distribution in that area. Wholesalers and especially retailers are not noted for their continuity in business either. Most middlemen have little loyalty to their vendors. They handle brands in good times when the line is making money but quickly reject such products within a season or a year if they fail to produce during that period. Distributors and dealers are probably the most loyal middlemen, but even with them, manufacturers must attempt to build brand loyalty downstream in a channel lest middlemen shift allegiance to other companies or other inducements.
Locating, Selecting, and Motivating Channel Members
The actual process of building channels for international distribution is seldom easy, and many companies have been stopped in their efforts to develop international markets by their inability to construct a satisfactory system of channels.
Construction of the middleman network includes seeking out potential middlemen, selecting those who fit the company’s requirements, and establishing working relationships with them.38 In international marketing, the channel-building process is hardly routine. The closer the company wants to get to the consumer in its channel contact, the larger the sales force required. If a company is content with finding an exclusive importer or selling agent for a given country, channel building may not be too difficult; however, if it goes down to the level of subwholesaler or retailer, it is taking on a tremendous task and must have an internal staff capable of supporting such an effort.
Locating Middlemen
The search for prospective middlemen should begin with study of the market and determination of criteria for evaluating middlemen servicing that market. The checklist of criteria differs according to the type of middlemen being used and the nature of their relationship with the company. Basically, such lists are built around four subject areas: productivity or volume, financial strength, managerial stability and capability, and the nature and reputation of the business. Emphasis is usually placed on either the actual or potential productivity of the middleman.
The major problems are locating information to aid in the selection and choice of specific middlemen and discovering middlemen available to handle one’s merchandise. Firms seeking overseas representation should compile a list of middlemen from such sources as the following: the U.S. Department of Commerce; commercially published directories; foreign consulates; chamber-of-commerce groups located abroad; other manufacturers producing similar but noncompetitive goods; middlemen associations; business publications; management consultants; carriers—particularly airlines; and Internet-based services such as Unibex, a global technology services provider. Unibex provides a platform for small- to medium-sized companies and larger enterprises to collaborate in business-to-business commerce.
Selecting Middlemen
Finding prospective middlemen is less a problem than determining which of them can perform satisfactorily. Low volume or low potential volume hampers most prospects, many are underfinanced, and some simply cannot be trusted.39 In many cases, when a manufacturer is not well known abroad, the reputation of the middleman becomes the reputation of the manufacturer, so a poor choice at this point can be devastating.
Screening.
The screening and selection process itself should include the following actions: an exploratory letter or email including product information and distributor requirements in the native language sent to each prospective middleman; a follow-up with the best respondents for specific information concerning lines handled, territory covered, size of firm, number of salespeople, and other background information; check of credit and references from other clients and customers of the prospective middleman; and, if possible, a personal check of the most promising firms. Obtaining financial information on prospective middlemen has become easier via such Internet companies as Unibex, which provides access to Dun & Bradstreet and other client information resources.
Experienced exporters suggest that the only way to select a middleman is to go personally to the country and talk to ultimate users of your product to find whom they consider to be the best distributors. Visit each possible middleman once before selecting the one to represent you; look for one with a key person who will take the new product to his or her heart and make it a personal objective to make the sale of that line a success. Furthermore, exporters stress that if you cannot sign one of the two or three customer-recommended distributors, you might be better off having no distributor in that country, because having a worthless one costs you time and money every year and may cut you out when you finally find a good one.
The Agreement.
Once a potential middleman has been found and evaluated, the task of detailing the arrangements with that middleman begins.40 So far the company has been in a buying position; now it must shift into a selling and negotiating position to convince the middleman to handle the goods and accept a distribution agreement that is workable for the company. Agreements must spell out specific responsibilities of the manufacturer and the middleman, including an annual sales minimum. The sales minimum serves as a basis for evaluation of the distributor; failure to meet sales minimums may give the exporter the right of termination.
Some experienced exporters recommend that initial contracts be signed for one year only. If the first year’s performance is satisfactory, they should be reviewed for renewal for a longer period. This time limit permits easier termination, and more important, after a year of working together in the market, a more suitable arrangement generally can be reached.
Motivating Middlemen
The level of distribution and the importance of the individual middleman to the company determine the activities undertaken to keep the middleman motivated. On all levels, the middleman’s motivation is clearly correlated with sales volume. Motivational techniques that can be employed to maintain middleman interest and support for the product may be grouped into five categories: financial rewards, psychological rewards, communications, company support, and corporate rapport.
Obviously, financial rewards must be adequate for any middleman to carry and promote a company’s products. Margins or commissions must be set to meet the needs of the middleman and may vary according to the volume of sales and the level of services offered. Without a combination of adequate margin and adequate volume, a middleman cannot afford to give much attention to a product.
Being human, middlemen and their salespeople respond to psychological rewards and recognition of their efforts. A trip to the United States or to the parent company’s home or regional office is a great honor. Publicity in company media and local newspapers also builds esteem and involvement among foreign middlemen.
In all instances, the company should maintain a continuing flow of communication in the form of letters, newsletters, and periodicals to all its middlemen. The more personal these are, the better. One study of exporters indicated that the more intense the contact between the manufacturer and the distributor, the better the performance by the distributor. More and better contact naturally leads to less conflict and a smoother working relationship.
Finally, considerable attention must be paid to the establishment of close rapport between the company and its middlemen. In addition to methods noted, a company should be certain that the conflicts that arise are handled skillfully and diplomatically. Bear in mind that all over the world, business is a personal and vital thing to the people involved.
Terminating Middlemen
When middlemen do not perform up to standards or when market situations change, requiring a company to restructure its distribution, it may be necessary to terminate relationships. In the United States, this termination is usually a simple action regardless of the type of middlemen; they are simply dismissed. However, in other parts of the world, the middleman often has some legal protection that makes termination difficult. In Colombia, for example, if you terminate an agent, you are required to pay 10 percent of the agent’s average annual compensation, multiplied by the number of years the agent served, as a final settlement.
Competent legal advice is vital when entering distribution contracts with middlemen. But as many experienced international marketers know, the best rule is to avoid the need to terminate distributors by screening all prospective middlemen carefully. A poorly chosen distributor may not only fail to live up to expectations but may also adversely affect future business and prospects in the country.
CROSSING BORDERS 14.3: No More Roses for My Miami Broker
Eight out of ten flowers you buy this year will have come from Colombia, our nation’s leading supplier of cut flowers. Colombia’s cut-flower industry now amounts to $580 million in exports annually. The majority of the flowers coming to the United States arrive in Miami aboard jets, bound for flower brokers who then hold them on consignment until U.S. wholesalers and retailers negotiate on price and place orders. In the past, growers often financed the supply chain and had no idea what a shipment would bring until sales were negotiated in Miami by brokers who charged an average of 15 percent for their services. That was the situation until the creation of the Flower Purchase Network (FPN) and its Floraplex Web site (www.floraplex.com), the first electronic marketplace in which flower growers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers can meet online to conduct e-business.
The FPN system allows buyers to negotiate directly with the growers and provides growers with an opportunity to expand their markets and increase profits quickly and efficiently. Users can buy from Holland, Africa, and Israel with service through the Dutch auctions (refer to Chapter 4, pp. 100–101), as well as from South and North America with service through self-provided logistics providers. Floraplex members that utilize the marketplace receive all their invoices, orders, sales history, purchase history, and more by using the one-stop account summary page. This seamless link between buyer and seller means sellers can negotiate directly with buyers while simultaneously reducing the cost of middlemen. Floraplex applies a 3 to 8 percent service fee for system usage, depending on volume, whereas Miami brokers charge an average of 15 percent commission.
Owned by World Commerce Online, FPN handles roughly 1 million stems of flowers per week and actively trades flowers on six continents—after being on the Web for less than a year. The next Web launch will be Freshplex, designed to do for the entire produce industry what Floraplex is doing for the flower industry.
Sources: “Colombia’s Hope: Less Coca, More Carnations,” Christian Science Monitor, March 24, 2000; http://www.floraplex.com, 2008; Mike Candelaria, “Changing the Way the Fresh-Cut Flower Industry Does Business,” Latin Trade, June 2000; T. Christian Miller, “Everything Is Coming Up Roses for Colombia’s Flower Industry,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 2003, p. A3.
Controlling Middlemen
The extreme length of channels typically used in international distribution makes control of middlemen especially important. Marketing objectives must be spelled out both internally and to middlemen as explicitly as possible. Standards of performance should include sales volume objective, inventory turnover ratio, number of accounts per area, growth objective, price stability objective, and quality of publicity. Cultural differences enter into all these areas of management.41
Control over the system and control over middlemen are necessary in international business. The first relates to control over the distribution network, which implies overall controls for the entire system to be certain the product is flowing through desired middlemen. Some manufacturers have lost control through “secondary wholesaling” or parallel imports.42 A company’s goods intended for one country are sometimes diverted through distributors to another country, where they compete with existing retail or wholesale organizations.
These greenhouses in the Jordan River Valley near Jericho are the beginning of a supply chain that delivers roses by air to the Aalsmeer Flower Market near Amsterdam, then to the United States and other countries. The mix of cultures in Israel is evident from the Bedouin shepherds in the foreground.
The second type of control is at the middleman level. When possible, the parent company should know (and to a certain degree control) the activities of middlemen with respect to their volume of sales, market coverage, services offered, prices, advertising, payment of bills, and even profit. Quotas, reports, and personal visits by company representatives can be effective in managing middleman activities at any level of the channel.
The Internet
The Internet is an important distribution method for multinational companies and a source of products for businesses and consumers. Indeed, a good argument can be made that the Internet has finally put the consumer in control of marketing and distribution globally.43 Computer hardware and software companies and book and music retailers were the earliest e-marketers to use this method of distribution and marketing. More recently there has been an expansion of other types of retailing and business-to-business (B2B) services into e-commerce. Technically, e-commerce is a form of direct selling; however, because of its newness and the unique issues associated with this form of distribution, it is important to differentiate it from other types of direct marketing.
E-commerce is used to market B2B services, consumer services, and consumer and industrial products via the World Wide Web. It involves the direct marketing from a manufacturer, retailer, service provider, or some other intermediary to a final user. Some examples of e-marketers that have an international presence are Dell Computer Corporation44 (www.dell.com), which generates nearly 50 percent of its total sales, an average of about $69 million a day, online; and Cisco Systems (www.cisco.com), which generates more than $1 billion in sales annually. Cisco’s Web site appears in 14 languages and has country-specific content for 49 nations. Gateway has global sites in Japan, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, to name a few (www.gateway.com). Sun Microsystems and its after-marketing company, SunExpress, have local-language information about more than 3,500 aftermarket products. SunPlaza enables visitors in North America, Europe, and Japan to get information online about products and services and to place orders directly in their native languages.
Besides consumer goods companies such as Lands’ End, Levi, and Nike, many smaller45 and less well-known companies have established a presence on the Internet beyond their traditional markets. An Internet customer from the Netherlands can purchase a pair of brake levers for his mountain bike from California-based Price Point. He pays $130 instead of the $190 that the same items would cost in a local bike store.
For a Spanish shopper in Pamplona, buying sheet music used to mean a 400-kilometer trip to Madrid. Now he crosses the Atlantic to shop—and the journey takes less time than a trip to the corner store. Via the Internet, he can buy directly from specialized stores and high-volume discounters in New York, London, and almost anywhere else.
E-commerce is more developed in the United States than the rest of the world partly because of the vast number of people who own personal computers and because of the much lower cost of access to the Internet than found elsewhere. (See Exhibit 14.3.) In addition language, legal, and cultural differences, the cost of local phone calls (which are charged by the minute in most European countries) initially discouraged extensive use and contributed to slower Internet adoption in Europe.
Services, the third engine for growth, are ideally suited for international sales via the Internet. All types of services—banking, education, consulting, retailing, hotels, gambling—can be marketed through a Web site that is globally accessible. As outsourcing of traditional in-house tasks such as inventory management, quality control, and accounting, secretarial, translation, and legal services has become more popular among companies, the Internet providers of these services have grown both in the United States and internationally.
Moreover, B2B enables companies to cut costs in three ways. First, it reduces procurement costs by making it easier to find the cheapest supplier, and it cuts the cost of processing the transactions. Estimates suggest that a firm’s possible savings from purchasing over the Internet vary from 2 percent in the coal industry to up to 40 percent in electronic components. British Telecom claims that procuring goods and services online will reduce the average cost of processing a transaction by 90 percent and reduce the direct costs of goods and services it purchases by 11 percent. The Ford, GM, and DaimlerChrysler exchange network for buying components from suppliers could reduce the cost of making a car by as much as 14 percent.
Second, it allows better supply-chain management. For example, more than 75 percent of all Cisco orders now occur online, up from 4 percent in 1996. This connection to the supply chain allowed Cisco to reduce order cycle time from six to eight weeks to one to three weeks and to increase customer satisfaction as well.
Third, it makes possible tighter inventory control. With Wal-Mart’s direct Internet links between its inventory control system and its suppliers, each sale automatically triggers a replenishment request. Fewer out-of-stock situations, the ability to make rapid inventory adjustments, and reduced ordering and processing costs have made Wal-Mart one of the industry’s most efficient companies.
The worldwide potential for firms operating on the Internet is extraordinary, but only if they are positioned properly46 and well supported by management.47 The World Wide Web, as a market, is rapidly moving through the stage where the novelty of buying on the Web is giving way to a more sophisticated customer who has more and constantly improving Web sites from which to choose. In short, Web merchants are facing more competition, and Web customers have more choice. This situation means that if a company is going to be successful in this new era of marketing, the basics of good marketing cannot be overlooked. For example, Forrester Research has discovered that nearly half the international orders received by U.S. companies go unfilled, even though a typical U.S. company can expect 30 percent of its Web traffic to come from foreign countries and 10 percent of its orders to come from abroad.
By its very nature, e-commerce has some unique issues that must be addressed if a domestic e-vendor expects to be a viable player in the international cybermarketplace. International legal issues were discussed in Chapter 7. Many other issues arise because the host-country intermediary who would ordinarily be involved in international marketing is eliminated. An important advantage of selling direct is that total costs can be lowered so that the final price overseas is considerably less than it would have been through a local-country middleman. However, such activities as translating prospective customer inquiries and orders into English and replying in the customer’s language, traditionally done by a local distributor, have to be done by someone. When intermediaries are eliminated, someone, either the seller or the buyer, must assume the functions they performed. Consequently, an e-vendor must be concerned with the following issues.
1. Culture. The preceding chapters on culture should not be overlooked when doing business over the Web. The Web site and the product must be culturally neutral or adapted to fit the uniqueness of a market, because culture does matter.48 In Japan, the pickiness of Japanese consumers about what they buy and their reluctance to deal with merchants at a distance must be addressed when marketing on the Web. Even a Japanese-language site can offend Japanese sensibilities. As one e-commerce consultant warns, in a product description, you wouldn’t say “Don’t turn the knob left,” because that’s too direct. Instead, you would say something like: “It would be much better to turn the knob to the right.” To many Europeans, American sites come off as having too many bells and whistles because European sites are more consumer oriented. The different cultural reactions to color can be a potential problem for Web sites designed for global markets. While red may be highly regarded in China or associated with love in the United States, in Spain it is associated with socialism. The point is that when designing a Web site, culture cannot be forgotten.
2. Adaptation. Ideally, a Web site should be translated into the languages of the target markets.49 This translation may not be financially feasible for some companies, but at least the most important pages of the site should be translated. Simple translation of important pages is only a stopgap measure however. If companies are making a long-term commitment to sales in another country, Web pages should be designed (in all senses of the term—color, use features, etc.) for that market. One researcher suggests that if a Web site does not have at least multiple languages, a company is losing sales. It is the company’s responsibility to bridge the language and cultural gap; the customer will not bother—he or she will simply go to a site that speaks his or her language. As discussed, culture does count, and as competition increases, a country-specific Web site may make the difference between success and failure.50

CROSSING BORDERS 14.4: One of the Many Dark Sides of the Internet: Growing Organ-Supply Shortfall Creates Windfall for Online Brokers
Growing demand for organ transplants worldwide is bringing new clout to online middlemen who charge ailing customers enormous fees to match them with scarce body parts.
These brokers have stepped in to fill a breach created by steep shortfall in supply. In rich nations, people are living longer at the same time that a drop in deaths from automobile accidents has shrunk a key source of donated organs. Because buying and selling organs is illegal almost everywhere, brokers say they match prospective patients with sources outside their own country’s health system. Forbes located offers of transplants online priced at anywhere from 60 to 400 percent more than their typical costs. One California broker arranges kidney transplants for $140,000 and hearts, livers and lungs for $290,000. Most of these transplants are being carried out in hospitals in developing countries, where medical and ethical standards “don’t rise to Western levels.”
More alarmingly, the Web sites that shill transplant deals might just be camouflaging a more nefarious business: underground organ trading. Desperate “transplant tourists” generally cannot determine whether an organ was harvested legally or if the kidney they are receiving was sold by a destitute Nepali or Brazilian, often for as little as $800. In China, authorities admitted two years ago that they have been harvesting organs from executed prisoners. Recently Beijing has agree to stop this controversial practice.
Sources: “Growing Organ-Supply Shortfall,” The Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2007, p. B4 (from Forbes, January 29); “Challenge Now Is To Find Other Sources of Organs,” South China Morning Post, October 2, 2007, p. 14.
Global Marketing on the Web at Marriott
The Internet today is the most global of any media invented so far, having leapfrogged television and radio—which may yet become global some day but are far from doing so. It is the only medium that approaches true global reach.
The power of the Internet results from its many unique attributes. It is unique in its ability to:
• Encompass text, audio and video in one platform.
• Operate in a dialogue versus monologue mode.
• Operate simultaneously as mass media and personalized media.
• Build global “communities,” unconfined by national borders.
These attributes make it the most powerful medium on earth, unparalleled in its ability to communicate, especially to a global world. It is an international marketer’s dream.
However, leveraging these characteristics in an effective manner requires dealing with various substantive issues. These issues include:
Renaissance is a Marriott-owned hotel brand. It uses various media to lead customers to its all-important Web sites, including print, television, Internet, and outdoor. Three 2-page print ads are directed toward U.K., Middle Eastern, and Chinese customers, and each of them lists the Web site addresses—the first two citing www.renaissancehotels.co.uk, and the last noting www.renaissancehotels.com.cn. Even though the same Web site ultimately serves customers in both the United Kingdom and the Middle East, the ad presentation is adapted to the more conservative dress appropriate in the latter region. Finally, you can see how the campaign is also used on the streets of Shanghai. Ask your classmates what “Be fashionable” translates into on the latter two ads.
• Major differences in Internet adoption rates across the globe ranging from greater than 70 percent adoption in North America to less than 2 percent for the continent of Africa. This difference greatly influences the role of the Web as part of the marketing mix in international markets. Even for advanced EU economies, the variability of adoption is great, ranging from 88 percent in the Netherlands to 49 percent in Belgium. The average for the entire continent of Africa is around 1 percent (see www.internetworldstats.com).
• Unique issues caused by technology including broadband versus narrow-band, which drive what products and services can be marketed and how. In the narrow-band world, highly graphic and video-based Web sites are not viable. An example is the elaborate photo tours of hotels on www.Marriott.com, which download quickly on broadband connections but take inordinately long on narrow band. Therefore, a site designed for one market can be ineffective in another.
• Costs to globalize can be enormous if multiple language sites need to be built. For example, translating the 110,000-page Marriott.com Web site is a very costly undertaking, both on a one-time and ongoing basis. Add to that the costs of translating the back-end systems that feed the site, and the costs rise exponentially. For sites with a lot of constantly changing content and heavy dependence on back-end systems, maintaining foreign language sites can be prohibitively expensive.
• Implications of differing labor costs that affect return on investment (ROI). For example, in the United States, the cost of an online booking for Marriott is less than half that of a phone booking. That differential may not apply in many Third World countries, where labor costs are often very low, making it difficult to justify a Web site investment.
• Different approaches to privacy, access, and infrastructure investment also require changes to strategy by market.
• On privacy. For example, EU laws are much more stringent than U.S. laws; as a result, the e-mail marketing strategy in the EU is much more cautious than in the United States.
• On access. Some countries regulate access to the Internet. For example, China only allows access to approved sites, whereas the United States does not limit Internet access.
• On infrastructure investment. Some countries have private investment fueling the development of the telecom technology systems required to enable Internet access (e.g., the United States), whereas in other countries, state-owned phone companies have this responsibility. In general, markets that have depended state investment have been laggards in the Internet space.
Apart from all of these issues, one of the most important challenges for companies contemplating a global Internet presence is determining whether they should build “foreign market sites” or “foreign language sites.” In an ideal world, with infinite resources, the answer could be to build both. However, that option is rarely possible given resource constraints. This challenge has been a key issue for Marriott International, which has responded in different ways, depending on market situations. In some cases, the hotel company tried one approach before moving to the other. In fact, Marriott’s experience in this area is an excellent illustration of the issue. To clarify the issue using France or French as an example, the question was:
Should we have a global site in French that caters to ALL French-speaking customers, no matter which country they live in

OR

Should we have a site in the French language, which addresses the needs of the LOCAL French market?
Having a French language site for a global French-speaking market had significant benefits, because there is a sizable French-speaking population in the world, which includes major parts of North and Central Africa and the Caribbean islands. However, in this case, Marriot decided in favor of a local site for France. In summary, the company found that
• The needs of French customers living in France were very different from the needs of customers in French-speaking Africa or Haiti. Customers living in France prefer different destinations than those living in other French-speaking areas, such as the Caribbean.
• Promotional approaches were also different for France than for other French-speaking countries. Using a U.S. example to illustrate, sweepstakes are far more popular and accepted in the United States than in Europe.
• Finally, the French market dwarfed all other French-speaking markets combined. Therefore, if Marriott could only afford to maintain one French site, it was more cost effective to address the largest French market, namely, France.
Paradoxically, when faced with the same question for Spanish—a Spanish-language site or a site for Spain/individual Spanish-speaking countries—Marriott decided to go for a Spanish-language site for several key reasons:
• None of the Spanish-speaking markets was very large for Marriott. Although Spain is the largest economy in the Spanish-speaking world, as of now, the company does not have enough hotels there or enough traffic from Spain to cost effectively build a site uniquely for Spain. That applies to all other Spanish-speaking countries.
• There was greater commonality of destinations among many Spanish-speaking countries—especially the Latin American countries—than among French-speaking countries. For example, the United States is an equally popular destination for almost all Latin American countries.
The second series of banner ads might flash across a computer screen in China; the last panel asks visitors to click to go to the Marriott Web site there. Marriott maintains 11 Web sites to attract its global clientele to its 2,800 hotels around the world. The sites appeal to consumers in the following countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, France, Germany, China, Japan, South Korea, Latin America (Spanish/Espanol), and Brazil.
Ironically, Marriott initially took the opposite approach to the same question, resulting in eight Spanish sites for various Latin American countries. However, it quickly found that it was impractical to build, manage, and maintain so many sites and get the returns on investment it desired. Although this scenario may and should change as the individual markets mature and gain critical mass, it appears that it will take some years. Until then, Marriott will maintain one Spanish-language site.
In summary, the international online marketplace is highly complex and continues to evolve. There is no single approach that fits every situation; even when that appears the case, it may not be for long, as is clear from the experience described. A key focus therefore should be on making good trade-off decisions and maintaining flexibility in strategy.
Source: Shafiq Khan, Senior Vice President eCommerce, Marriott International, 2008. (Photos Courtesy of Marriott.)
3. Local contact. Companies fully committed to foreign markets are creating virtual offices abroad; they buy server space and create mirror sites, whereby a company has a voice mail or fax contact point in key markets. Foreign customers are more likely to visit sites in their own country and in the local language. In Japan, where consumers seem particularly concerned about the ability to return goods easily, companies may have outlets where merchandise can be returned and picked up. These so-called click-and-mortar models have gained a large following.
4. Payment. The consumer should be able to use a credit card number—by e-mail (from a secure page on the Web site), by fax, or over the phone. Although this accessibility had been an important problem in burgeoning markets like China, customers and banking systems there are now beginning to catch on fast.51
5. Delivery. For companies operating in the United States, surface postal delivery of small parcels is the most cost effective but takes the longest time. For more rapid but more expensive deliveries, FedEx, UPS, and other private delivery services provide delivery worldwide. For example, Tom Clancy’s bestseller Executive Orders, shipped express to Paris from Seattle-based Amazon.com, would cost a reader $55.52. The same book delivered in 4 to 10 weeks via surface mail costs $25.52, which is a substantial savings over the cost of the book in a Paris bookstore, where it sells for $35.38.
Once sufficient volume in a country or region is attained, container shipments to free trade zones or bonded warehouses can be used for distribution of individual orders via local delivery services within the region. These same locations can also be used for such after-sale services as spare parts, defective product returns, and supplies. Companies such as FedEx, UPS, and similar small-package delivery services also have overseas storage and fulfillment centers for individual orders that e-commerce companies can use to provide faster and less costly in-country delivery.
6. Promotion. Although the Web is a means of promotion, if you are engaging in e-commerce, you also need to advertise your presence and the products or services offered. The old adage “Build a better mouse trap and the world will beat a path to your door” does not work for e-commerce, just as it does not work with other products unless you tell your target market about the availability of the “better mouse trap.” How do you attract visitors from other countries to your Web site? The same way you would at home—except in the local language. Search engine registration, press releases, local newsgroups and forums, mutual links, and banner advertising are the traditional methods. A Web site should be seen as a retail store, with the only difference between it and a physical store being that the customer arrives over the Internet instead of on foot.
When discussing the Internet and international channels of distribution, the question of how traditional channels will be changed by the Internet must be considered. Already, comparison shopping across the Continent via the Internet is wrenching apart commercial patterns cobbled together over centuries. Before the Internet, Europeans rarely shopped across borders, and car companies, exempt from EU antitrust laws in distribution, offered cars at price differentials of up to 40 percent. The Internet has blown this system apart and allows the European customer to shop easily for the best price.
Not only will the traditional channels change, but so will the Internet, which is still evolving. Much of what is standard practice today may well be obsolete tomorrow as new means of data transmission are achieved, costs of accessing the Web decrease, and new e-commerce models are invented. The Web is rapidly growing—and changing as it grows.
Summary
The international marketer has a broad range of alternatives for developing an economical, efficient, high-volume international distribution system. To the uninitiated, however, the variety may be overwhelming. Careful analysis of the functions performed suggests more similarity than difference between international and domestic distribution systems; in both cases, the three primary alternatives are using agent middlemen, merchant middlemen, or government-affiliated middlemen. In many instances, all three types of middlemen are employed on the international scene, and channel structure may vary from nation to nation or from continent to continent.
The neophyte company in international marketing can gain strength from the knowledge that information and advice are available relative to the structuring of international distribution systems and that many well-developed and capable middleman firms exist for the international distribution of goods. Although international middlemen have become more numerous, more reliable, and more sophisticated within the past decade, traditional channels are being challenged by the Internet, which is rapidly becoming an important alternative channel to many market segments. Such growth and development offer an ever-wider range of possibilities for entering foreign markets.

15: Exporting and Logistics: SPECIAL ISSUES FOR BUSINESS

Global Perspective: AN EXPORT SALE: FROM TRADE SHOW TO INSTALLATION
February 3: The Trade Show and the Order
This account of the sale of paper-converting machinery, called a case maker, between Austin Inc., a New Hampshire–based manufacturer, and China Books, a Chinese book publisher, details the steps of an international export sale. It begins in Germany at DRUPA, the largest trade show in the world for the printing and paper market. Mr. Kang, a representative for China Books, approaches Austin’s booth and thinks, “Well, it took a week to find the Americans’ booth, but watching their machines run has made it easier to see which equipment serves us best.” Kang also muses that it was nice to meet the people who actually design and build the machine and to see the solid relationship with their Far Eastern sales agent. Kang likes the equipment and signs an order for $500,000, which stipulates a 15 percent deposit ($75,000) and the pledge of a letter of credit for the rest.
March 3: The Financing
Once Kang returns home, he applies for financing and an import license. The import license requirements make the whole deal a chicken-and-egg situation: Kang can’t complete the financing until he gets the import license, and once he gets the license, he has a specified time in which to complete the transaction.
July 3: Import License and the Letter of Credit
Four months later, Kang finally gets the import license. Because it is good for only six months, he has to be careful that the letter of credit’s latest ship and expiry dates are within the effective time of the import permit. He applies for financing and the letter of credit.
In the United States, Mr. Roberts, Austin’s controller, is concerned about the sale to China Books. “It’s been more than four months since the sales department sent a copy of the signed order, and yet the company still hasn’t received the 15 percent deposit,” Roberts thinks. “Until they send the money, the customer isn’t really committed. Nevertheless, the general manager has decided to release a stock machine to the manufacturing department to begin the necessary adaptations that the Chinese buyer wants. If the company doesn’t begin work now, the equipment will not be ready as promised on the order. If this customer doesn’t come through, the company will be stuck with a product finished to China Books’ specifications and no cash.”
Over the past four months, there has been a flurry of fax messages between Austin and China Books. Before the instructions for the letter of credit can be completed, details on the proposed shipment dates (before December 31), terms of sale (CIF—cost, insurance, and freight), and lists of Export-Import (Ex-Im) Bank facilities from the trade resource center in Portsmouth, New Hampshire (China Books wants to finance part of the cost of the purchase with an Ex-Im Bank–guaranteed loan) have to be confirmed by both parties.
Roberts chooses CIF as the terms of sale so his company can select its regular freight forwarder to handle all the details. This order is the company’s first sale to China, so CIF gives Roberts some peace of mind—he won’t have to rely on unknown people to collect on the letter of credit. It also means Austin controls selection of the shipping carrier and presumably will get the best shipping rate.
In addition, China Books was able to use one of the banks on the Ex-Im Bank list, so the financing should go smoothly, and Roberts is satisfied that China Books will qualify for a loan.
August 1: Closing the Deal
The bank just called Kang with loan approval. He thinks, “Now I’ve got to get wire instructions for the letter of credit and send the 15 percent deposit. They said delivery this December. I’ll put down December 31 as the latest shipment date, with an expiry of January 31.”
Roberts receives the request for wire instructions from Kang. “It will probably take about three weeks for everything to clear the bank,” he thinks. “But the wire instructions must go out now since nothing can be shipped until the original letter of credit is received.” Shipping had advised Roberts that shipping the machinery through Montreal could avoid some stiff harbor maintenance fees that shipping out of New York would entail. Thus, when Roberts sends the wire instructions to Kang, he asks the Chinese buyer to permit shipment through Montreal.
September 4: Production and Shipment
Kang thinks to himself, “This faxing across the world is awkward but more efficient than telephoning, because while I’m writing in mid-morning, they’re going to bed. Now we just need to wait for the machine to get here.” Kang begins planning for the integration of the new case maker into China Book’s production line and realizes they need to add a counter stacker option to the machine. The plant efficiency that will be gained should be worth the extra $20,000. Kang starts to call the bank to have the counter stacker added to the letter of credit but hesitates and thinks, “I’m sick of bank rhetoric, so we’ll just wire them the additional funds before shipment. The amendment to the letter of credit will cost too much time and money.”
Because a lot rides on this order, Kang decides he will schedule a trip to New Hampshire for the final acceptance test. He wants to be sure the machine will handle the paper stock the company uses. No one wants the machine to be delivered and then find out it won’t work the way they expect. Too many complications arise if the equipment is paid for and delivered and it needs major adjustments.
Back in New Hampshire, Roberts is checking details to make sure the case maker will be shipped on time. “Things are getting hectic—so much to do, so little time. If they expect to ship this year, the customer must accept the machine by December 16. That gives us a week to break it down and skid it (bolt the machine to a wooden pallet) and a week to get it on a boat. We have very little room for error because of the holidays. Besides, the customer wants special packing in desiccant because of climatic conditions. So we’ll need to send the shipment to a packing specialist before it goes to port.”
November 1: Letter of Credit
Roberts sends the original letter of credit to his freight forwarder by second-day air and includes the bank invoice forms and marine insurance certificate.
December 2: Final Inspection and Shipping Schedules
In China, Kang thinks, “Roberts faxed me possible vessel dates. They’re going for Friday, December 20, out of Montreal, and I’m booked to be in New Hampshire December 11–15. The vessel arrives in Shanghai January 25. That would be just right. I hope they’ll be ready for the test run because our material will be a challenge for them to run.”
Meanwhile, Roberts is thinking, “I’m glad our general manager decided to release the case maker as a stock machine during the DRUPA show. He OK’d it because the China Books deal looked firm. We’d never be able to ship it this year otherwise. Kang seems like a decent person—very bright. They got their material here two weeks ago for us to try, and since then manufacturing has been working hard trying to meet their specs. I hope we have a good week.”
December 13: The Test Run
“The machine looks impressive,” Kang observes after he watches the test run take place. “But I’m not convinced we can run a consistent 120 per minute. I insist we come in tomorrow for one more demo. They’re close, so if they don’t quite do it, I won’t pay the installation bill until we’re comfortable with production at our plant. Besides, Roberts told me the boat would probably leave late, so they have a little extra time to get the container to the pier.”
A second test run takes place the next day. Kang asks for a few minor adjustments but is otherwise satisfied that China Books will get consistently good production from Austin’s case maker.
In his office, Roberts wonders why all foreign shipments seem to occur at year-end. “Cheryl at Fast Forwarder (Austin’s freight forwarder) said we should be ready first thing on Monday, December 16, if we want to get the container on board for a December 31 sailing. Since nothing happens during the last week of the year, it needs to be there this Friday morning to be processed by the line. The steamship companies will probably start the holidays at noon on the 24th. Red alert! Call Cheryl immediately and tell her the 40-footer (container) must have a wooden floor—with no room for surprises!”
January 2: It’s on the Way
Kang is ecstatic. “Roberts just faxed me the ocean bill of lading. The case maker was on board the vessel Tiger Shark December 31, with an estimated arrival in Shanghai on January 30. They just made it!”
Analysis
Although this scenario may seem staggering, it is not intended to overwhelm you or make you wary of exporting. The point is that specific export mechanics occur when goods are shipped from one country to another, and though they may be tedious, you cannot escape them. The good news is that assistance is available for the exporter from government and private sources. This scenario occurred prior to widespread use of the Internet, and many of the steps can either be completed on the Internet or sped up by using the Internet, but they cannot be eliminated. According to one source, a bank’s role in handling the risks in shipping and paying for goods has not changed much since the 17th century. What has changed is technology. Banks are adapting their trade finance to the electronic age. Instead of faxes, telegraph, and postal service as used in the Global Perspective, many banks take a direct feed from a client’s purchase-order system, extract the data, use it to create a letter of credit, and provide real-time information on transaction status. For example, Bank One offers an Internet-based tool for creating, modifying, and sending letters of credit and collections. And in the future, banks will act as a hub to all parties involved in transactions—buyer, seller, bank, carrier, freight forwarder, insurance company, and customs authorities. The rules and regulations remain the same but the process is expedited, thanks to the benefits of the Internet. As you read this chapter, identify each of the places in this scenario where the Internet could be used to expedite the process.
Sources: Robert R. Costa, “Tales of Foreign Sales,” Financial Executive, January–February 1997, pp. 43–46; Steve Marlin, “Banks Link Their Trade Platforms with the International Movement of Goods,” Information Week, May 12, 2003, p. 48; “Short-Term Financing: Banker’s Acceptances,” Economist Intelligence Unit—Country Finance, February 19, 2008, p. 84.
Exporting is an integral part of all international business, whether the company is large or small, or whether it markets in one country or is a global marketer. Goods manufactured in one country and destined for another must be moved across borders to enter the distribution system of the target market. There are three kinds of barriers to exporting that face even the most enthusiastic international traders: managerial, organizational, and external.1 All are pertinent to our discussion here about the nuts-and-bolts of exporting and logistics.
Most countries control the movement of goods crossing their borders, whether leaving (exports) or entering (imports). Export and import documents, tariffs, quotas, and other barriers to the free flow of goods between independent sovereignties are requirements that must be met by the exporter, the importer, or both.2
In addition to selecting a target market, designing an appropriate product, establishing a price, planning a promotional program, and selecting a distribution channel, the international marketer must meet the legal requirements involved in moving goods from one country to another. The exporting process (see Exhibit 15.1 above) includes the licenses and documentation necessary to leave the country, an international carrier to transport the goods, and fulfillment of the import requirements necessary to get the shipment legally into another country.3

Exhibit 15.1: The Exporting Process

Firms often have staff experienced in dealing with export mechanics, but agencies, government and private, are available to provide expert assistance to firms confronted with unfamiliar situations or a task that is too burdensome.4 More and more, companies are finding it cost effective to outsource many exporting activities, especially since the terrorist attack on New York’s World Trade Center (9/11) called for new security and compliance requirements.5 In cases when exports are processed in-house, the necessary mechanics for exporting can be largely completed using the Internet. These mechanics of exporting are sometimes considered the essence of foreign marketing; however, they should not be seen as the primary task of international marketing but as a necessary step in completing the process of marketing.
Countries impose some form of regulation and restriction on the exporting and importing of goods for many reasons.
Export regulations
may be designed to conserve scarce goods for home consumption or to control the flow of strategic goods to actual or potential enemies.
Import regulations
may be imposed to protect health, conserve foreign exchange, serve as economic reprisals, protect home industry, provide revenue in the form of tariffs, and ensure national security. To comply with various regulations, the exporter may have to acquire export licenses or permits from the home country and ascertain that the potential customer has the necessary permits for importing the goods. The rules and regulations that cover the exportation and importation of goods and their payment, and the physical movement of those goods between countries, are the special concerns of this chapter.
Export Restrictions
Although the United States requires no formal or special license to engage in exporting as a business, permission or a license to export may be required for certain commodities and certain destinations. Export licensing controls apply to exports of commodities and technical data from the United States; re-exports of U.S.-origin commodities and technical data from a foreign destination to another foreign destination; U.S.-origin parts and components used in foreign countries to manufacture foreign products for exports; and, in some cases, foreign products made from U.S.-origin technical data. Most items requiring special permission or a license for exportation are under the control of the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS)6 of the Department of Commerce.
The volume of exports and the number of companies exporting from the United States have grown spectacularly over the last decade. In an effort to alleviate many of the problems and confusions of exporting and to expedite the process, the Department of Commerce has published a revised set of export regulations known as the
Export Administration Regulations (EAR). They are intended to speed up the process of granting export licenses by removing a large number of items from specific export license control and by concentrating licensing on a specific list of items, most of which affect national security, nuclear nonproliferation, terrorism, or chemical and biological weapons. Along with these changes comes a substantial increase in responsibility on the part of the exporter since the exporter must now ensure that Export Administration Regulations are not violated.
The EAR is intended to serve the national security, foreign policy, and nonproliferation interests of the United States and, in some cases, to carry out its international obligations.7 It also includes some export controls to protect the United States from the adverse impact of the unrestricted export of commodities in short supply, such as Western cedar. Items that do not require a license for a specific destination can be shipped with the notation NLR (no license required) on the Shipper’s Export Declaration. Some export restrictions on high-technology products have been recently eased, which we hope marks the beginning of a new trend.8

Determining Export Requirements
The first step when complying with export licensing regulations is to determine the appropriate license for your product. Products exported from the United States require a general or a validated export license, depending on the product, where it is going, the end use, and the final user. The general license permits exportation of certain products that are not subject to EAR control with nothing more than a declaration of the type of product, its value, and its destination. The validated license, issued only on formal applications, is a specific document authorizing exportation within specific limitations designated under the EAR.
The responsibility of determining if a license is required rests with the exporter. This is a key point! The steps necessary to determine the type of license required and/or if an item can be shipped are as follows:
• The exporter is responsible for selecting the proper classification number, known as the
Export Control Classification Number (ECCN)
, for the item to be exported. The ECCN leads to a description in the
Commerce Control List (CCL)
, which indicates the exportability status of the item.
• The exporter must decide from the CCL if the items have end-use restrictions, for example, use in nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The exporter must also determine if the product has a dual use, that is, if it can be used in both commercial and restricted applications.
• The exporter is responsible for determining the ultimate end customer and end uses of the product, regardless of the initial buyer. This step includes carefully screening end users and uses of the product to determine if the final destination of the product is to an unapproved user or for an unapproved use. U.S. law requires firms to avoid shipments if the firm has knowledge that customers will use its products for illegal purposes or resell the product to unauthorized end users.
To illustrate, suppose you are an exporter of shotguns and you are beginning the process of fulfilling orders from Argentina (20-inch barrel shotguns), Australia (23-inch and 26-inch barrels), and Sudan (26-inch barrels).9 The first step is to determine the proper Export Control Classification Number (ECCN) for the commodity to be exported. Each ECCN consists of five characters that identify its category, product group, type of control, and country group level. There are three general ways to determine a product’s ECCN:
• If you are the exporter of the product but not its manufacturer, you can contact the manufacturer or developer to see if that firm already has an ECCN.
• Compare the general characteristics of the product to the Commerce Control List and find the most appropriate product category. Once the category is identified, you go through the entire category and identify the appropriate ECCN by determining the product’s particular functions.
• Request a classification from the BIS. The request must include the end use, end user, and/or destination. The BIS will advise you whether a license is required or likely to be granted for a particular transaction. This type of request is known as an advisory opinion. An advisory opinion does not bind the BIS to issuing a license in the future, because government policies may change before a license is actually granted.
Once the proper ECCN has been obtained (in this illustration 0A984; see Exhibit 15.2), the second step is to locate the number in the Commerce Control List. Consulting the (CCL) for shotguns (see Exhibit 15.2), the description shows that the reasons for control are Crime Control (CC), Firearms Convention (FC), and U.N. sanctions (U.N.) and that there are different restrictions depending on the length of the shotgun barrel.
Exhibit 15.2: Illustration of Commerce Control List Requirements for ECCN 0A984

The third step is to consult the
Commerce Country Chart (CCC)
(Exhibit 15.3), which helps you determine, based on the reason(s) for control associated with your item, if you need a license to export or re-export your item to a particular destination. In combination with the Commodity Control List, the CCC allows you to determine whether a license is required for items on the CCL exported to any country in the world.
Exhibit 15.3: Commerce Country Chart: Reasons for Control (Selected Countries)

In checking the CCC (Exhibit 15.3), you find Argentina, Australia, and Sudan all listed. Looking at the Crime Control and Firearms Convention columns and referencing the product description in the Commodity Control List, you see that the Argentinian order for shotguns with 20-inch barrels falls into CC Column 1 and FC Column 1, where the x indicates that the order cannot be shipped without a special license. The Australian orders for 23-inch and 26-inch shotguns (CC Columns 1 and 2) do not require special licenses.
Finally, an examination of the Sudanese order for 26-inch shotguns reveals in CC Column 2 that the product can be exported without a special license; however, CC Column 3 indicates that if the guns are for sale or resale to police or law enforcement, a special license is required. Because you are not sure if the shotguns are to be resold, more information will be needed before the order can be processed. If you determine that the guns will not be resold to police or law enforcement, they can be shipped without special license; otherwise, a license will have to be obtained before the shipment can take place.
But the challenge is not yet over. An exporter also must establish that the end user is not listed in the List of Denied Persons,10 which lists those denied export privileges; no shipments may be made to any person or company on the denied persons list. In addition to checking the denial list, the exporter needs to make a general check to be sure there are no indications that the end-user’s intentions will lead to an unauthorized use of the product.
Unfortunately, you cannot always rely on the buyer’s word. Sun Microsystems sold one of its supercomputers to a Hong Kong firm that claimed the computer was destined for a scientific institute near Beijing, an authorized sale. A trace of the final destination revealed that the computer’s final destination was a military research facility in China, an unauthorized end use and user. Because Sun Microsystems monitored the sale and reported the diversion, there were no legal consequences. Negotiations between China and the U.S. government resulted in the return of the computer to Sun Microsystems. To be alert to possible problems like the one Sun faced, the Export Administration Regulations suggest looking for red flags (Exhibit 15.4), which may give a clue that your customer is planning an unlawful diversion.
Exhibit 15.4: Red Flags

Chinese air force officers undergo a training session on the latest command center instruments at a training school in Beijing. China successfully test-fired a new type of long-range ground-to-ground missile within its territory as tensions between China and Taiwan intensified after Taiwan’s president declared that relations between Taipei and Beijing should be regarded as “special state-to-state relations.” Most recently China and the United States have both shot down their own “errant” satellites with missiles.11 Much of the electronic technology used in long-range missiles is dual-use; that is, the technology can be used for both nonmilitary and military applications. It is the exporter’s responsibility to ensure that the final user of restricted dual-use products complies with export restrictions. (© Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS)
As is true of all the export mechanics that an exporter encounters, the details of exporting must be followed to the letter. Good record keeping, as well as verifying the steps undertaken in establishing the proper ECCN and evaluating the intentions of end users and end uses, is important should a disagreement arise between the exporter and the Bureau of Industry and Security. Penalties can entail denial of export privileges, fines, or both. For example, a five-year denial of export privileges was imposed on a resident of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, based on his conviction of illegally exporting 150 riot shields to Romania without the required export license. At the time of the shipment, the riot shields were controlled for export worldwide for foreign policy reasons. See Exhibit 15.5 for examples of violations and penalties.
Exhibit 15.5: Example of Violations and Penalties of BIS Export Controls

ELAIN, STELA, ERIC, and SNAP
Although the procedure for acquiring an export license may seem tedious on first reading, four electronic services facilitate the paperwork and reduce the time necessary to acquire export licenses.
•
ELAIN
(Export License Application and Information Network) enables expgorters that have authorization to submit license applications via the Internet for all commodities except supercomputers to all free-world destinations. When approved, licensing decisions are conveyed back to the exporters via the Internet.
•
STELA
(System for Tracking Export License Applications), an automated voice-response system for tracking applications, can be accessed using a touch-tone phone. It provides applicants with the status of their license and classification applications and is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. STELA can give exporters authority to ship their goods for those licenses approved without conditions.
•
ERIC
(Electronic Request for Item Classification), a supplementary service to ELAIN, allows an exporter to submit commodity classification requests via the Internet to the Bureau of Export administration.
•
SNAP
(Simplified Network Application Process), an alternative to paper license submissions, enables an exporter to submit export and re-export applications, high-performance computer notices, and commodity classification requests via the Internet. Acknowledgments of submissions will be received the same day, and electronic facsimiles of export licenses and other validations can be obtained online. SNAP is one of the changes made by the Department of Commerce to move it from being a paper-based bureaucracy to an all-digital department.
Import Restrictions
An exporter planning a sale to a foreign buyer must examine the export restrictions of the home country as well as the import restrictions and regulations of the importing country. Although the responsibility of import restrictions may rest with the importer, the exporter does not want to ship goods until it is certain that all import regulations of the destination country have been met. Goods arriving without proper documentation can be denied entry and returned to the shipper.
Besides import tariffs, many other trade restrictions are imposed by foreign countries. A few examples from the 30 basic barriers to exporting considered important by Business International include import licenses, quotas, and other quantitative restrictions; currency restrictions and allocation of exchange at unfavorable rates on payments for imports; devaluation; prohibitive prior import deposits, prohibition of collection-basis sales, and insistence on cash letters of credit; arbitrarily short periods in which to apply for import licenses; and delays resulting from pressure on overworked officials or from competitors’ influence on susceptible officials.12
Trading with the European Union from outside the European Union or within member states, an exporter continues to be confronted with market barriers that have yet to be eliminated. One study of 20,000 EU exporting firms indicated that the most troublesome barriers were administrative roadblocks, border-crossing delays, and capital controls. Generally such barriers are challenged and ultimately dropped. As the European Union becomes more fully integrated, many of the barriers that exist among member countries will be eliminated, though not as rapidly as some expect.
The most frequently encountered trade restrictions, besides tariffs, are such nontariff barriers (NTBs) as exchange permits, quotas, import licenses, standards, boycotts, and voluntary agreements.
Tariffs
Recall that tariffs are the taxes or customs duties levied against goods imported from another country. All countries have tariffs for the purpose of raising revenue and protecting home industries from competition with foreign-produced goods.13 Tariff rates are based on value or quantity or a combination of both. In the United States, for example, the types of customs duties used are classified as follows: (1) ad valorem duties, which are based on a percentage of the determined value of the imported goods; (2) specific duties, a stipulated amount per unit weight or some other measure of quantity; and (3) a compound duty, which combines both specific and ad valorem taxes on a particular item, that is, a tax per pound plus a percentage of value. Because tariffs frequently change, published tariff schedules for every country are available to the exporter on a current basis.14

Exchange Permits
Especially troublesome to exporters are exchange restrictions placed on the flow of currency by some foreign countries. To conserve scarce foreign exchange and alleviate balance-of-payment difficulties, many countries impose restrictions on the amount of their currency they will exchange for the currency of another country—in effect, they ration the amount of currency available to pay for imports. Exchange controls may be applied in general to all commodities, or a country may employ a system of multiple exchange rates based on the type of import. Essential products might have a very favorable exchange rate, while nonessentials or luxuries would have a less favorable rate of exchange. South Africa, for example, until recently had a two-tier system for foreign exchange: Commercial Rand and Financial Rand. At times, countries may not issue any exchange permits for certain classes of commodities.
In countries that use exchange controls, the usual procedure is for the importer to apply to the control agency of the importing country for an import permit; if the control agency approves the request, an import license is issued. On presentation to the proper government agency, the import license can be used to have local currency exchanged for the currency of the seller.
Receiving an import license, or even an exchange permit, however, is not a guarantee that a seller can exchange local currency for the currency of the seller. If local currency is in short supply—a chronic problem in some countries—other means of acquiring home-country currency are necessary. For example, in a transaction between the government of Colombia and a U.S. truck manufacturer, there was a scarcity of U.S. currency to exchange for the 1,000 vehicles Colombia wanted to purchase. The problem was solved through a series of exchanges. Colombia had a surplus of coffee that the truck manufacturer accepted and traded in Europe for sugar; the sugar was traded for pig iron; and finally the pig iron was traded for U.S. dollars.
CROSSING BORDERS 15.1: Major Smuggling Ring Busted—A Sweet Deal
The United States maintains an artificial price for sugar to protect the cane and beet sugar industry. This feat is accomplished by placing a quota on sugar imports. The amount of sugar imported annually is determined by estimating the annual consumption less estimated U.S. production. In 2004, consumption was 10.2 tons, production was 8.4 tons; thus the quota for that year was 1.8 tons. This limit held U.S. domestic raw sugar prices to 23 cents per pound compared to 9 cents on the world market. Therefore, U.S. consumers spend about $2 billion yearly in higher prices for sugar and food items that contain sugar than if we had a free market in sugar. But while sugar costs more for the average citizen, it also means that if you could figure a way to buy sugar at 9 cents on the world market and sell it at 23 cents in the United States, you could make a pot full of money—but then there is that nasty quota standing in the way. Well, there may be a way around those quotas if we read the law carefully.
Eureka! After a careful reading of the categories of sugar and derivatives covered by the sugar quota, an enterprising importer spotted a category not included in the quota, a gooey brown sugar–based molasses that is good for little more than animal feed. The Customs Department was contacted about the molasses product, agreed that it was not covered by the sugar restrictions, and gave its explicit approval to import the mixture without paying high tariffs. The company built a processing plant in Canada to turn Brazilian sugar into the molasses and a refinery across the border in Michigan to reverse the process and produce precisely the sort of sugar syrup covered by the tariffs. It then sold the product to its usual customers: big makers of ice cream, confectionery, and breakfast cereals.
All went well until the ever-vigilant sugar lobby, one of the strongest lobbies in the United States, put pressure on prominent politicians from sugar-producing states to stop those “smugglers”—causing Customs to reverse itself. Alarmed that it might see its tariffs rise by some 7,000 percent, the company challenged the decision in the Court of International Trade (CIT). The court sided with the firm, dismissing the government’s action as “arbitrary, capricious, and abuse of discretion,” citing the precedent that products are classified according to the way they are imported, not their ultimate use. More pointedly, the court maintained that an importer had the right to design products specifically to get a lower duty. An internal memo from the agency said that under long-standing policy, what happened to a product after it was across the border didn’t matter. The fact that, after importation, the product may be processed to allow it to compete directly with sugar subject to the quota is not relevant to classification. The agency has always tolerated a certain amount of tariff engineering. The judge said that car makers routinely import parts they later assemble in the United States to avoid high tariffs. The judge noted that even when pearls are imported ready for stringing, with holes already drilled in them, Customs classifies them as pearls, not jewelry, which carries a higher tax rate.
A month after the ruling, the litigators began an appeal to Congress to change the definition of the sugar syrup to one of ultimate use, rather than what it is when imported. This definition would make the Customs ruling and the court case irrelevant. It would also put the company out of business. However, until the law is rewritten, truckloads of molasses goop cross the border into the United States to become clear sugar syrup that is used, among other things, as a coating for your breakfast cereal.
Sources: Bill Walsh, “Smart or Smuggling?” New Orleans Times-Picayune, April 30, 2000, p. F9; David Whelan, “Even the Biggest Companies Screw Up on Export Rules,” Forbes, May 2004; “CAFTA Cornucopia,” Washington Times, May 5, 2005, p. A18; Alan Beattie, “Sugar Lobby Still Packs a Punch Despite Reform to Subsidies, Financial Times, March 30, 2006, p. 8.
This somewhat complicated but effective countertrade transaction is not uncommon. As will be discussed in Chapter 18, countertrade deals are often a result of the inability to convert local currency into home-country currency or of the refusal of a government to issue foreign exchange.
Quotas
Countries may also impose limitations on the quantity of certain goods imported during a specific period. These quotas may be applied to imports from specific countries or from all foreign sources in general. The United States, for example, has specific quotas for importing sugar,15 wheat, cotton, tobacco, textiles, and peanuts; in the case of some of these items, the amount imported from specific countries is also limited.16 The most important reasons to set quotas are to protect domestic industry and to conserve foreign exchange. Some importing countries also set quotas to ensure an equitable distribution of a major market among friendly countries.
Import Licenses
As a means of regulating the flow of exchange and the quantity of a particular imported commodity, countries often require import licenses. The fundamental difference between quotas and import licenses as a means of controlling imports is the greater flexibility of import licenses over quotas. Quotas permit importing until the quota is filled; licensing limits quantities on a case-by-case basis.
Standards
Like many nontariff barriers, standards have legitimacy. Health standards,17 safety standards, and product quality standards are necessary to protect the consuming public, and imported goods are required to comply with local laws. Unfortunately, standards can also be used to slow down or restrict the procedures for importing to the point that the additional time and cost required to comply become, in effect, trade restrictions.
Safety standards are a good example. Most countries have safety standards for electrical appliances and require that imported electrical products meet local standards. However, safety standards can be escalated to the level of an absolute trade barrier by manipulating the procedures used to determine if products meet the standards. The simplest process is for the importing nation to accept the safety standard verification used by the exporting country, such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL) in the United States. If the product is certified for sale in the United States, and if U.S. standards are the same as the importing country’s, then U.S. standards and certification are accepted and no further testing is necessary. Most countries not interested in using standards as a trade barrier follow such a practice.
The extreme situation occurs when the importing nation does not accept the same certification procedure required by the exporting nation and demands all testing be done in the importing country. Even more restrictive is the requirement that each item be tested instead of accepting batch testing. In this case, the effect is the same as a boycott. Until recently, Japan required all electrical consumer products to be tested in Japan or tested in the United States by Japanese officials. Japan now accepts the UL’s safety tests except for medical supplies and agricultural products, which still must be tested in Japan.
Boycotts
A boycott18 is an absolute restriction against trade with a country or trade of specific goods. American firms must honor boycotts sanctioned by the U.S. government; however, a U.S. company participating in an unauthorized boycott could be fined for violating the U.S. antiboycott law. For example, U.S. companies are prohibited from participating in the Arab League boycott on trade with Israel. U.S. law forbids U.S. firms to comply with such unauthorized boycotts.19 If an American firm refuses to trade with Israel in order to do business with an Arab nation, or in any other way participates in the Arab League boycott, it faces stiff fines. Boycotts are the most restrictive non-tariff barriers to trade (NTB) because they ban all trade, whereas other types of restrictions permit some trade.20

Voluntary Agreements
Foreign restrictions of all kinds abound, and the United States can be counted among those governments using restrictions. For over a decade, U.S. government officials have been arranging “voluntary” agreements with the Japanese steel and automobile industries to limit sales to the United States. Japan entered these voluntary agreements under the implied threat that if it did not voluntarily restrict the export of automobiles or steel to an agreed limit, the United States might impose even harsher restrictions, including additional import duties. Similar negotiations with the governments of major textile producers have limited textile imports as well. The cost of tariffs, quotas, and voluntary agreements on all fibers is estimated to be as much as $40 billion at the retail level. This number works out to be a hidden tax of almost $500 a year for every American family.
NYK Line (Nippon Yusen Kaisha) brings automobiles from Japan to Aqaba, Jordan, on the Red Sea for delivery to other countries in the area, but not for neighboring Israel.
Other Restrictions
Restrictions may be imposed on imports of harmful products, drugs, medicines, and immoral products and literature. Products must also comply with government standards set for health, sanitation, packaging, and labeling. For example, in the Netherlands, all imported hen and duck eggs must be marked in indelible ink with the country of origin; in Spain, imported condensed milk must be labeled to show fat content if it is less than 8 percent fat; and in the European Union, strict import controls have been placed on beef and beef products imported from the United Kingdom because of mad cow disease. Add to this list all genetically modified foods, which are meeting stiff opposition from the European Union as well as activists around the world.
Failure to comply with regulations can result in severe fines, penalties, and delays in clearing customs. A shipment of pork sausages was delayed clearing customs for four months because the proper permit was not issued, even though prior shipments had cleared with a similar permit. Because requirements vary for each country and change frequently, regulations for all countries must be consulted individually and on a current basis. Overseas Business Reports, issued periodically by the Department of Commerce, provides the foreign marketer with the most recent foreign trade regulations of each country as well as U.S. regulations regarding each country.
Although sanitation certificates, content labeling, and similar regulations serve a legitimate purpose, countries can effectively limit imports by using such restrictions as additional trade barriers. Most of the economically developed world encourages foreign trade and works through the World Trade Organization (WTO) to reduce tariffs and nontariff barriers to a reasonable rate.21 Yet in times of economic recession, countries revert to a protectionist philosophy and seek ways to restrict the importing of goods. Nontariff barriers have become one of the most potent ways for a country to restrict trade. The elimination of nontariff barriers has been a major concern of GATT negotiations in both the Tokyo and Uruguay Rounds and continues with the WTO.
Terms of Sale

Terms of sale
, or
trade terms
, differ somewhat in international marketing from those used in the United States. In U.S. domestic trade, it is customary to ship FOB (free on board, meaning that the price is established at the door of the factory), freight collect, prepaid, or COD (cash, or collect, on delivery). International trade terms often sound similar to those used in domestic business but generally have different meanings. International terms indicate how buyer and seller divide risks and obligations and, therefore, the costs of specific kinds of international trade transactions. When quoting prices, it is important to make them meaningful. The most frequently used international trade terms include the following:
• CIF (cost, insurance, freight) to a named (that is, specified in writing) overseas port of import. A CIF quote is more meaningful to the overseas buyer because it includes the costs of goods, insurance, and all transportation and miscellaneous charges to the named place of debarkation.
• C&F (cost and freight) to a named overseas port. The price includes the cost of the goods and transportation costs to the named place of debarkation. The cost of insurance is borne by the buyer.
• FAS (free alongside) at a named U.S. port of export. The price includes cost of goods and charges for delivery of the goods alongside the shipping vessel. The buyer is responsible for the cost of loading onto the vessel, transportation, and insurance.
• FOB (free on board) at a named inland point, at a named port of exportation, or at a named vessel and port of export. The price includes the cost of the goods and delivery to the place named.
• EX (named port of origin). The price quoted covers costs only at the point of origin (for example, EX Factory). All other charges are the buyer’s concern.
A complete list of terms and their definitions can be found in Incoterms 2000, a booklet published by the International Chamber of Commerce.22 It is important for the exporter to understand exactly the meanings of terms used in quotations. A simple misunderstanding regarding delivery terms may prevent the exporter from meeting contractual obligations or make that person responsible for shipping costs he or she did not intend to incur. Exhibit 15.6 indicates who is responsible for a variety of costs under various terms.
Exhibit 15.6: Who’s Responsible for Costs under Various Terms?

Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments
The sale of goods in other countries is further complicated by additional risks encountered when dealing with foreign customers.23 Risks from inadequate credit reports on customers, problems of currency exchange controls, distance, and different legal systems, as well as the cost and difficulty of collecting delinquent accounts, require a different emphasis on payment systems.24 In U.S. domestic trade, the typical payment procedure for established customers is an
open account
—that is, the goods are delivered, and the customer is billed on an end-of-the-month basis. However, the most frequently used term of payment in foreign commercial transactions for both export and import sales is a letter of credit, followed closely in importance by commercial dollar drafts or bills of exchange drawn by the seller on the buyer. Internationally, open accounts are reserved for well-established customers, and cash in advance is required of only the poorest credit risks or when the character of the merchandise is such that not fulfilling the terms of the contract may result in heavy loss. Because of the time required for shipment of goods from one country to another, advance payment of cash is an unusually costly burden for a potential customer and places the seller at a definite competitive disadvantage.
Terms of sales are typically arranged between the buyer and seller at the time of the sale. The type of merchandise, amount of money involved, business custom, credit rating of the buyer, country of the buyer, and whether the buyer is a new or old customer must be considered in establishing the terms of sale. The five basic payment arrangements—letters of credit, bills of exchange, cash in advance, open accounts, and forfaiting—are discussed in this section.
Letters of Credit
Export
letters of credit
opened in favor of the seller by the buyer handle most American exports. Letters of credit shift the buyer’s credit risk to the bank issuing the letter of credit. When a letter of credit is employed, the seller ordinarily can draw a draft against the bank issuing the credit and receive dollars by presenting proper shipping documents.25 Except for cash in advance, letters of credit afford the greatest degree of protection for the seller.
The procedure for a letter of credit begins with completion of the contract. (See Exhibit 15.7 for the steps in a letter-of-credit transaction.) Letters of credit can be revocable or irrevocable. An irrevocable letter of credit means that once the seller has accepted the credit, the buyer cannot alter it in any way without permission of the seller. Added protection is gained if the buyer is required to confirm the letter of credit through a U.S. bank. This irrevocable, confirmed letter of credit means that a U.S. bank accepts responsibility to pay regardless of the financial situation of the buyer or foreign bank. From the seller’s viewpoint, this step eliminates the foreign political risk and replaces the commercial risk of the buyer’s bank with that of the confirming bank. The confirming bank ensures payment against a confirmed letter of credit. As soon as the documents are presented to the bank, the seller receives payment.
Exhibit 15.7: A Letter-of-Credit Transaction

The international department of a major U.S. bank cautions that a letter of credit is not a guarantee of payment to the seller. Rather, payment is tendered only if the seller complies exactly with the terms of the letter of credit. Because all letters of credit must be exact in their terms and considerations, it is important for the exporter to check the terms of the letter carefully to be certain that all necessary documents have been acquired and properly completed.
As illustrated in the Global Perspective at the beginning of this chapter, the process of getting a letter of credit can take days, if not weeks. Fortunately, this process is being shortened considerably as financial institutions provide letters of credit on the Internet. As one example, AVG Letter of Credit Management LLC uses eTrade Finance Platform (ETFP), an e-commerce trade transaction system that enables exporters, importers, freight forwarders, carriers, and trade banks to initiate and complete trade transactions over the Internet. The company advertises that the efficiencies afforded by the Internet make it possible to lower the cost of an export letter of credit from $500-plus to $25.26

Bills of Exchange
Another important form of international commercial payment is
bills of exchange
drawn by sellers on foreign buyers. In letters of credit, the credit of one or more banks is involved, but with bills of exchange (also known as dollar drafts), the seller assumes all risk until the actual dollars are received. The typical procedure is for the seller to draw a draft on the buyer and present it with the necessary documents to the seller’s bank for collection. The documents required are principally the same as for letters of credit. On receipt of the draft, the U.S. bank forwards it with the necessary documents to a correspondent bank in the buyer’s country; the buyer is then presented with the draft for acceptance and immediate or later payment. With acceptance of the draft, the buyer receives the properly endorsed bill of lading that is used to acquire the goods from the carrier.
Dollar drafts have advantages for the seller because an accepted draft frequently can be discounted at a bank for immediate payment. Banks, however, usually discount drafts only with recourse; that is, if the buyer does not honor the draft, the bank returns it to the seller for payment. An accepted draft is firmer evidence in the case of default and subsequent litigation than an open account would be.
Cash in Advance
The volume of international business handled on a cash-in-advance basis is not large. Cash places unpopular burdens on the customer and typically is used when credit is doubtful, when exchange restrictions within the country of destination are such that the return of funds from abroad may be delayed for an unreasonable period, or when the American exporter for any reason is unwilling to sell on credit terms. Although full payment in advance is employed infrequently, partial payment (from 25 to 50 percent) in advance is not unusual when the character of the merchandise is such that an incomplete contract can result in heavy loss. For example, complicated machinery or equipment manufactured to specification or special design would necessitate advance payment, which would be, in fact, a nonrefundable deposit.
Open Accounts
Sales on open accounts are not generally made in foreign trade except to customers of long standing with excellent credit reputations or to a subsidiary or branch of the exporter. Open accounts obviously leave sellers in a position where most of the problems of international commercial finance work to their disadvantage. Sales on open accounts are generally not recommended when the practice of the trade is to use some other method, when special merchandise is ordered, when shipping is hazardous, when the country of the importer imposes difficult exchange restrictions, or when political unrest requires additional caution.
Forfaiting
Inconvertible currencies and cash-short customers can kill an international sale if the seller cannot offer long-term financing. Unless the company has large cash reserves to finance its customers, a deal may be lost.
Forfaiting
is a financing technique for such a situation.
The basic idea of a forfaiting transaction is fairly simple: The seller makes a one-time arrangement with a bank or other financial institution to take over responsibility for collecting the account receivable. The exporter offers a long financing term to its buyer but intends to sell its account receivable, at a discount, for immediate cash. The forfaiter buys the debt, typically a promissory note or bill of exchange, on a nonrecourse basis. Once the exporter sells the paper, the forfaiter assumes the risk of collecting the importer’s payments. The forfaiting institution also assumes any political risk present in the importer’s country.27
Forfaiting is similar to factoring, but it is not the same. In factoring a company has an ongoing relationship with a bank that routinely buys its short-term accounts receivable at a discount—in other words, the bank acts as a collections department for its client. In forfaiting, however, the seller makes a one-time arrangement with a bank to buy a specific account receivable.
Export Documents
Each export shipment involves many documents to satisfy government regulations that control exporting, as well as to meet requirements for international commercial payment transactions. The most frequently required documents are export declarations, consular invoices or certificates of origin, bills of lading, commercial invoices, and insurance certificates. Additional documents such as import licenses, export licenses, packing lists, and inspection certificates for agricultural products are often necessary.
The paperwork involved in successfully completing a transaction is considered by many to be the greatest of all nontariff trade barriers. There are 125 different documents in regular or special use in more than 1,000 different forms. A single shipment may require over 50 documents and involve as many as 28 different parties and government agencies or require as few as 5. Luckily, software is available that takes some of the burden out of this task. In one such program, the export information is entered once, and the program automatically completes more than two dozen standard export forms, which can then be either printed or e-mailed to freight forwarders, customs brokers, or customers.
Although documents can be prepared routinely, their importance should not be minimized; incomplete or improperly prepared documents lead to delays in shipment. For example, a Mexican Customs official noticed that a certain piece of documentation out of all the paperwork required for a complete trainload of containers lacked a required signature—just one signature. The officer held the train up for almost two days until every container was unloaded and opened to verify that the contents matched the contents listed on the manifest. In some countries, penalties, fines, or even confiscation of the goods could have resulted from errors in documentation.
Export documents are the result of requirements imposed by the exporting government, of requirements set by commercial procedures established in foreign trade, and, in some cases, of the supporting import documents required by the importing government. See Exhibit 15.8 for descriptions of the principal export documents.
Exhibit 15.8: Principal Export Documents

Packing and Marking
In addition to completing all documentation, special packing and marking requirements must be considered for shipments destined to be transported over water, subject to excessive handling, or destined for parts of the world with extreme climates or unprotected outdoor storage. Packing that is adequate for domestic shipments often falls short for goods subject to the conditions mentioned. Protection against rough handling, moisture, temperature extremes, and pilferage may require heavy crating, which increases total packing costs as well as freight rates because of increased weight and size. Because some countries determine import duties on gross weight, packing can add a significant amount to import fees. To avoid the extremes of too much or too little packing, the marketer should consult export brokers, export freight forwarders, or other specialists.
All countries regulate the marking of imported goods and containers, and noncompliance can result in severe penalties. Recently announced Peruvian regulations require all imported foreign products to bear a brand name, country of origin, and an expiration date clearly inscribed on the product. In the case of imported wearing apparel, shoes, electric appliances, automotive parts, liquors, and soft drinks, the name and tax identity card number of the importer must also be added. Peruvian Customs refuse clearance to foreign products not fulfilling these requirements, and the importer has to reship the goods within 60 days of the customs appraisal date, or they are seized and auctioned as abandoned goods. Furthermore, goods already in Peru must meet the provisions of the decree or be subject to public auction.
The exporter must be careful that all markings on the container conform exactly to the data on the export documents, because Customs officials often interpret discrepancies as an attempt to defraud. A basic source of information for American exporters is the Department of Commerce pamphlet series entitled Preparing Shipment to [Country], which details the necessary export documents and pertinent U.S. and foreign government regulations for labeling, marking, packing, and customs procedures.
Customs-Privileged Facilities
To facilitate export trade, countries designate areas within their borders as
customs-privileged facilities
, that is, areas where goods can be imported for storage and/or processing with tariffs and quota limits postponed until the products leave the designated areas. Foreign trade zones (also known as free trade zones), free ports, and in-bond arrangements are all types of customs-privileged facilities that countries use to promote foreign trade.28

Foreign Trade Zones
The number of countries with foreign trade zones (FTZs)29 has increased as trade liberalization has spread through Africa, Latin America, eastern Europe, and other parts of Europe and Asia. Most FTZs function in a similar manner regardless of the host country.
In the United States, FTZs extend their services to thousands of firms engaged in a spectrum of international trade-related activities ranging from distribution to assembly and manufacturing.30 More than 300 foreign trade zones are located throughout the United States,31 including those in New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, Seattle, Toledo, Honolulu, Mayagües (Puerto Rico), Kansas City, Little Rock, and Sault St. Marie. Goods subject to U.S. customs duties and quota restrictions can be landed in these zones for storage or such processing as repackaging, cleaning, and grading before being brought into the United States or reexported to another country.32 Merchandise can be held in an FTZ even if it is subject to U.S. quota restrictions. When a particular quota opens up, the merchandise may then be immediately shipped into the United States. Merchandise subject to quotas may also be substantially transformed within a zone into articles that are not covered by quotas, and then shipped into the United States free of quota restrictions.
CROSSING BORDERS 15.2: Underwear, Outerwear, Sony Playstations, and Pointed Ears—What Do They Have in Common?
What do underwear, outerwear, pointed ears, and Sony Playstation have in common? Quotas, that’s what!
Call the first one the Madonna Effect. Madonna, the voluptuous pop star, affected the interpretation of outerwear/underwear when the ever-vigilant U.S. Customs Service stopped a shipment of 880 bustiers at the U.S. border. The problem was quota and tariff violations. The shipper classified them as underwear, which comes into the United States without quota and tariff. Outerwear imports, however, have a quota, and the Customs official classified the fashion item inspired by Madonna as “outerwear” and demanded the appropriate quota certificates.
“It was definitely outerwear. I’ve seen it; and I’ve seen the girls wearing it, and they’re wearing it as outerwear.” It took the importer three weeks to obtain sufficient outerwear quota allowances to cover the shipment; by that time, several retailers had canceled their orders.
Call the second the Video/Computer Effect. EU officials originally classified Sony’s Playstation a video game and thus subject to a higher tariff than it would be if it were classified as a computer, which was Sony’s desired classification. The Court of First Instance ruled that “it is intended mainly to be used to run video games,” thus subject to millions of euros in customs duties as a video game. The appeals court sided with Sony on a technical error and reversed the decision. It really did not make much difference, because EU customs classifications were set to change six months later to allow computers and games consoles into the European Union with zero tariff.
Call the third the Vulcan Effect. EU officials applied the Vulcan death grip to Star Trek hero Spock. Likenesses of the pointy-eared Spock and other “non-human creatures” have fallen victim to an EU quota on dolls made in China. The EU Council of Ministers slapped a quota equivalent to $81.7 million on nonhuman dolls from China—but it left human dolls alone.
British Customs officials are in the unusual position of debating each doll’s humanity. They have blacklisted teddy bears but cleared Batman and Robin. And though they turned away Spock because of his Vulcan origins, they have admitted Star Trek’s Captain Kirk. The Official Fan Club for Star Trek said the Customs officials “ought to cut Spock some slack” because his mother, Amanda, was human. But Britain’s Customs office said, “We see no reason to change our interpretation. You don’t find a human with ears that size.”
Sources: Rosalind Resnick, “Busting Out of Tariff Quotas,” North American International Business (now published as International Business), February 1991, p. 10; Dana Milbank, “British Customs Officials Consider Mr. Spock Dolls to Be Illegal Aliens,” The Wall Street Journal, August 2, 1994, p. B1; “EU Rejects Sony Customs Claim,” (Salt Lake City) Deseret News, October 6, 2003.
In situations in which goods are imported into the United States to be combined with American-made goods and re-exported, the importer or exporter can avoid payment of U.S. import duties on the foreign portion and eliminate the complications of applying for a drawback, that is, a request for a refund from the government of 99 percent of the duties paid on imports later re-exported. Other benefits for companies utilizing foreign trade zones include lower insurance costs, because greater security is required in FTZs; more working capital, since duties are deferred until goods leave the zone; the opportunity to stockpile products when quotas are filled or while waiting for ideal market conditions; significant savings on goods or materials rejected, damaged, or scrapped, for which no duties are assessed; and exemption from paying duties on labor and overhead costs incurred in an FTZ, which are excluded in determining the value of the goods.33

Offshore Assembly (Maquiladoras)

Maquiladoras
,
in-bond companies
, or twin plants are names given to a special type of customs-privileged facility that originated in Mexico in the early 1970s.34 This type of facility has since expanded to other countries that have abundant, low-cost labor. Although in-bond operations vary from country to country, the original arrangement between Mexico and the United States remains the most typical. In 1971, the Mexican and U.S. governments established an in-bond program that created a favorable opportunity for U.S. companies to use low-cost Mexican labor.
The Mexican government allows U.S. processing, packaging, assembling, and/or repair plants located in the in-bond area to import parts and processed materials without import taxes, provided the finished products are re-exported to the United States or to another foreign country. In turn, the U.S. government permits the re-importation of the packaged, processed, assembled, or repaired goods with a reasonably low import tariff applied only to the value added while in Mexico.
The passage of NAFTA resulted in some changes in the rules governing maquiladoras. Preferential tariff treatment and all export performance requirements (for example, trade and foreign exchange balancing) have been eliminated for NAFTA countries. Also, 100 percent of all maquiladora-manufactured goods can be sold in Mexico versus the 50 percent permitted prior to NAFTA.
More than 2,600 companies participate in the maquiladoras program, with finished products valued at more than $30 billion annually. Although still dominated by U.S. companies, the maquiladoras are no longer only American. Heavy investments are pouring in from Asia and Europe, spurring expansion at close to 7 percent annually. Products made in maquiladoras include electronics, healthcare items, automotive parts, furniture, clothing, and toys. In most in-bond arrangements, special trade privileges are also part of the process. The maquiladora arrangement is becoming more cost efficient for many companies that previously operated in Asia as Asian wage rates increase. Higher costs in Mexico are offset by the wage increases in Asia and increased shipping costs from Asia to the United States rather than from Mexico. However, some companies are still finding manufacturing in Asia more attractive.35

Logistics
When a company is primarily an exporter from a single country to a single market, the typical approach to the physical movement of goods is the selection of a dependable mode of transportation that ensures safe arrival of the goods within a reasonable time for a reasonable carrier cost. As a company becomes global, such a solution to the movement of products could prove costly and highly inefficient for seller and buyer. As some global marketers say, the hardest part is not making the sale but getting the correct quantity of the product to customers in the required time frame at a cost that leaves enough margins for a profit.36
At some point in the growth and expansion of an international firm, costs other than transportation are such that an optimal cost solution to the physical movement of goods cannot be achieved without thinking of the physical distribution process as an integrated system. When an international marketer begins producing and selling in more than one country and becomes a global marketer, it is time to consider the concept of
logistics management, a total systems approach to the management of the distribution process that includes all activities involved in physically moving raw material, in-process inventory, and finished goods inventory from the point of origin to the point of use or consumption.37

Getting the product to market can mean multiple transportation modes, from motorcycle delivery of moon cakes in Hanoi, to cargo containers in a U.S. port waiting to be loaded on to trucks, to air express service in Malaysia. More than 15 million containers are in use globally and, by value, account for about 90 percent of the world’s internationally traded cargo. For products using high value and time-sensitive component parts manufactured worldwide, such air express services as provided by this DHL Worldwide Express Boeing 737 in Kuala Lumpur are vital. (top: © Hoang Dinh Nam/AFP/Getty Images; left: © Macduff Everton/CORBIS; right: © JIMIN LAI/AFP/Getty Images)

Interdependence of Physical Distribution Activities
A
physical distribution system
involves more than the physical movement of goods. It includes location of plants and warehousing (storage), transportation mode, inventory quantities, and packing. The concept of physical distribution takes into account the interdependence of the costs of each activity; a decision involving one activity affects the cost and efficiency of one or all others. In fact, because of their interdependence, the sum of each of the different activity costs entails an infinite number of “total costs.” (Total cost of the system is defined as the sum of the costs of all these activities.)
The idea of interdependence can be illustrated by the classic example of airfreight. Exhibit 15.9 is an illustration of an actual company’s costs of shipping 44,000 peripheral boards worth $7.7 million from a Singapore plant to the U.S. West Coast using two modes of transportation—ocean freight and the seemingly more expensive airfreight. When considering only rates for transportation and carrying costs for inventory in transit, air transportation costs were approximately $57,000 higher than ocean freight. But notice that when total costs are calculated, airfreight was actually less costly than ocean freight because of other costs involved in the total physical distribution system.
Exhibit 15.9: Real Physical Distribution Costs between Air and Ocean Freight—Singapore to the United States

To offset the slower ocean freight and the possibility of unforeseen delays and to ensure prompt customer delivery schedules, the company had to continuously maintain 30 days of inventory in Singapore and another 30 days’ inventory at the company’s distribution centers. The costs of financing 60 days of inventory and of additional warehousing at both points—that is, real physical distribution costs—would result in the cost of ocean freight exceeding air by more than $75,000. And ocean freight may even entail additional costs such as a higher damage rate, higher insurance, and higher packing rates.
Substantial savings can result from the systematic examination of logistics costs and the calculation of total physical distribution costs. A large multinational firm with facilities and customers around the world shipped parts from its U.S. Midwest plant to the nearest East Coast port, then by water route around the Cape of Good Hope (Africa), and finally to its plants in Asia, taking 14 weeks. Substantial inventory was maintained in Asia as a safeguard against uncertain water-borne deliveries. The transportation carrier costs were the least expensive available; however, delivery delays and unreliable service caused the firm to make emergency air shipments to keep production lines going. As a result, air shipment costs rose to 70 percent of the total transport bill. An analysis of the problem in the physical distribution system showed that trucking the parts to West Coast ports using higher-cost motor carriers and then shipping them to Asia by sea could lower costs. Transit time was reduced, delivery reliability improved, inventory quantities in Asia lowered, and emergency air shipments eliminated. The new distribution system produced annual savings of $60,000.
Although a cost difference will not always be the case, the examples illustrate the interdependence of the various activities in the physical distribution mix and the total cost. A change of transportation mode can affect a change in packaging and handling, inventory costs, warehousing time and cost, and delivery charges.
The concept behind physical distribution is the achievement of the optimum (lowest) system cost consistent with customer service objectives of the firm. If the activities in the physical distribution system are viewed separately, without consideration of their interdependence, the final cost of distribution may be higher than the lowest possible cost (optimum cost), and the quality of service may be adversely affected. Additional variables and costs that are interdependent and must be included in the total physical distribution decision heighten the distribution problems confronting the international marketer. As the international firm broadens the scope of its operations, the additional variables and costs become more crucial in their effect on the efficiency of the distribution system.
One of the major benefits of the European Union’s unification is the elimination of transportation barriers among member countries. Instead of approaching Europe on a country-by-country basis, a centralized logistics network can be developed. The trend in Europe is toward pan-European distribution centers. Studies indicate that companies operating in Europe may be able to cut 20 warehousing locations to 3 and maintain the same level of customer service. A German white goods manufacturer was able to reduce its European warehouses from 39 to 10, as well as improve its distribution and enhance customer service. By cutting the number of warehouses, it reduced total distribution and warehousing costs, brought down staff numbers, held fewer items of stock, provided greater access to regional markets, made better use of transport networks, and improved service to customers, all with a 21 percent reduction of total logistics costs.
Benefits of a Physical Distribution System
A system of physical distribution offers more benefits than cost advantages. An effective physical distribution system can result in optimal inventory levels and, in multiplant operations, optimal production capacity, both of which can maximize the use of working capital. In making plant-location decisions, a company with a physical distribution system can readily assess operating costs of alternative locations to serve various markets.
A physical distribution system may also result in better (more dependable) delivery service to the market; when production occurs at different locations, companies are able to determine quickly the most economical source for a particular customer. As companies expand into multinational markets and source these markets from multinational production facilities, they are increasingly confronted with cost variables that make it imperative to employ a total systems approach to the management of the distribution process to achieve efficient operation. Finally, a physical distribution system can render the natural obstructions created by geography less economically critical for the multinational marketer. Getting the product to market can mean multiple transportation modes, such as canal boats in China, pedal power in Vietnam, and speed trains in Japan or Europe.
Export Shipping and Warehousing
Whenever and however title to goods is transferred, those goods must be transported. Shipping goods to another country presents some important differences from shipping to a domestic site. The goods can be out of the shipper’s control for longer periods of time than in domestic distribution, more shipping and collections documents are required, packing must be suitable, and shipping insurance coverage is necessarily more extensive. The task is to match each order of goods to the shipping modes best suited for swift, safe, and economical delivery. Ocean shipping, airfreight, air express, and parcel post are all possibilities. Ocean shipping is usually the least expensive and most frequently used method for heavy bulk shipment. For certain categories of goods, airfreight can be the most economical and certainly the speediest.
Shipping costs are an important factor in a product’s price in export marketing, and the transportation mode must be selected in terms of the total impact on cost. One estimate is that logistics account for between 19 and 23 percent of the total cost of a finished product sold internationally. One of the important innovations in ocean shipping in reducing or controlling the high cost of transportation is the use of containerization.38 Containerized shipments, in place of the traditional bulk handling of full loads or break-bulk operations, have resulted in intermodal transport between inland points, reduced costs, reduced losses from pilferage and damage, and simplified handling of international shipments.
CROSSING BORDERS 15.3: If the Shoe Fits, Wear It . . . or Abandon It
Pilferage and theft are ongoing problems in shipping. These problems are constantly being addressed with different security strategies. Using containers for shipping is one of the more successful strategies, but containers also can be stolen. Such was the case in Los Angeles when thieves cut through security fencing at a major container terminal, drove a truck tractor into the area, and broke open a few containers until they found one with sports shoes that sell for $140 a pair in retail stores. They hooked up the container and drove out with their booty.
But the police had the last laugh. A week later, they found the container abandoned with its cargo intact. The U.S.-based shoe importer routinely ships all its left shoes in one container and all its right shoes in another. The thieves had stolen the container with left shoes.
Source: Adapted from John Davies, “Sneaking Up on Security,” International Business, February 1997, p. 18.
With increased use of containerization, rail container service has developed in many countries to provide the international shipper with door-to-door movement of goods under seal, originating and terminating inland. This option eliminates several loadings, unloading, and changes of carriers and reduces costs substantially. Unfortunately, such savings are not always possible for all types of cargo.
For many commodities of high unit value and low weight and volume, international airfreight is a reasonable choice. Airfreight has shown the fastest growth rate for freight transportation even though it accounts for only a fraction of total international shipments. Although airfreight can cost two to five times the surface charges for general cargo, some cost reduction is realized through reduced packing requirements, paperwork, insurance, and the cost of money tied up in inventory. Although usually not enough to offset the higher rates charged for airfreight, it can, as illustrated in Exhibit 15.9, be a justifiable alternative if the commodity has high unit value or high inventory costs, or if delivery time is a concern. Many products moving to foreign markets meet these criteria.
In the last decade, the services available to the international shipper have continuously improved both in the home market and abroad. Intermodal services, a transportation system that unites various modes of transportation into one seamless movement of goods from factory to the customer’s port of entry, have become more efficient as deregulation has allowed the coupling of various modes of transportation. In addition, inter-modal marketing companies (IMCs) have evolved to broker transportation services so that an exporter can make one transaction with an IMC that takes care of the movement of goods from factory to customer, rivaling the simplicity of single-mode freight transportation. The IMC stitches together each of the transportation modes involved in freight movements, which may reach as many as four separate transportation modes. All of this can be done within guaranteed periods, with 98 percent on-time performance schedules more the norm than the exception. As one logistics specialist commented, “No matter how fast or timely the ship carrying a 45-foot container from Shenzhen to Long Beach, it is the speed and dependability of the whole pipeline—the underlying modes and logistics functions to achieve the door-to-door requirements of the shipper that matters.”
Intermodal services in other parts of the world are not as advanced as in the United States. Europe is closest to providing similar services; however, deregulation and barriers that existed before unification have yet to be eliminated. Unlike truck transportation, Europe’s 26 railways have not capitalized on the removal of borders in Europe’s single market. Progress is being made as railroads are beginning to restructure, and a pan-European intermodal marketing company similar to those in the United States has been formed. Before long it will be possible to extend the services in the United States to European customers so that one transaction can be made to ensure freight delivery from a factory in the United States to a final customer in Europe. Such services are now becoming available in Asia and Latin America as improvements in transportation services are being made in both areas.
Two giant pandas, four-year-old male Le Le and two-year-old female Ya Ye, are being loaded onto the Panda Express, a FedEx plane, that is airlifting them from China to the Memphis, Tennessee, zoo for a ten-year visit. Whether it is pandas, time-sensitive deliveries, or cost-saving solutions, FedEx delivers high-value shipments door-to-door to as many as 210 countries. Also, notice the white arrow embedded in the FedEx logo (between the E and the x) that connotes motion. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan)
Another innovation in transportation and logistics is the service provided by UPS, FedEx, and similar companies. In addition to providing air-express service for packages, these companies are offering complete logistics management services including support services for their clients—truly door-to-door delivery around the world. For example, FedEx will take a manufacturer’s product, warehouse it, keep inventory, provide all the labor and technology, and move it throughout the world. FedEx can warehouse a computer system made in Malaysia, move it to Japan to be coupled with components from Taiwan, and then deliver a completed product to the final destination in yet another country. One client’s experience illustrates how such a service can improve a company’s distribution costs and service. The computer parts repair center of this company moved into a FedEx Express Distribution Center in Japan and was able to cut average total turnaround time from 45 days to 5 days while lowering cost. FedEx took over storage, control, and shipment of the parts using its own networks and aircraft. UPS offers similar services, including local parts stocking and defective return services in Europe, the Pacific Rim, and the Americas.
Distribution and its costs are an important part of every international transaction. Cheap labor may make Chinese clothing competitive in the United States, but if delays in shipment tie up working capital and cause winter coats to arrive in April, the advantage may be lost. Similarly, production machinery disabled for lack of a part can affect costs throughout the system, all of which might be avoided with a viable logistics system.
The globalization of marketing and manufacturing, in which component parts are made in several countries, assembled in some others, and serviced the world over, puts tremendous pressure on a company’s ability to physically move goods. A narrow solution to physical movement of goods is the selection of transportation; a broader application is the concept of logistics management or physical distribution. When customers value broad product assortment, holding a great number of products or component parts in inventory increases the costs of the supplier. Although the need for warehousing can be reduced with direct deliveries from manufacturers, the value of direct deliveries is diminished when orders are received in several shipments and at different times. One solution to this problem is merge-in-transit, a distribution method in which goods shipped from several supply locations are consolidated into one final customer delivery point while they are in transit and then shipped as a unit to the customer. As distribution systems become more complex and costly, merge-in-transit is one system designed to increase customer value and decrease distribution costs.
Foreign Freight Forwarder
The foreign freight forwarder, licensed by the Federal Maritime Commission, arranges for the shipment of goods as the agent for an exporter. The forwarder is an indispensable agent for an exporting firm that cannot afford an in-house specialist to handle paperwork and other export trade mechanics.39
Even in large companies with active export departments capable of handling documentation, a forwarder is useful as a shipment coordinator at the port of export or at the destination port.40 Besides arranging for complete shipping documentation, the full-service foreign freight forwarder provides information and advice on routing and scheduling, rates and related charges, consular and licensing requirements, labeling requirements, and export restrictions. Furthermore, the agent offers shipping insurance, warehouse storage, packing and containerization, and ocean cargo or airfreight space.
An astute freight forwarder will also double-check all assumptions made on the export declaration, such as commodity classifications, and will check the list of denied parties and end uses. Both large and small shippers find freight forwarders’ wide range of services useful and well worth the fees normally charged. In fact, for many shipments, forwarders can save on freight charges because they can consolidate shipments into larger, more economical quantities. Although many forwarders are available, more and more companies are using those that have joined alliances with shippers and become part of the larger multifaceted integrators discussed previously. Experienced exporters regard the foreign freight forwarder as an important addition to in-house specialists.41

International Logistics and Supply Chain Management
As discussed previously, the essence of international logistics is to integrate all the steps necessary to move goods from supplier to manufacturer to customer. This goal means that a logistics system has to deal with an often disparate set of agents and activities—carriers, warehouses, export regulations, import regulations, customs agents, freight forwarders, and so on—each of which must be accessed individually by the logistics manager.42 The goals are multidimensional and include cost minimization, increased levels of service, improved communication among customers or suppliers, and increased flexibility in terms of delivery and response time. The ability of firms to achieve these goals has been limited until recently because existing communication and knowledge links did not bring together all of the players in the process. The advent of information technology (IT) has allowed communication with the participants in real time via a single connection point.43
When a computer manufacturer has to coordinate supply chains that reach into China and Malaysia and Mexico and Portugal, software such as that provided by NextLinx,44 Descartes,45 and others is used to fully automate its supply chain systems. Trucks, ships, trains, and planes cannot be made to travel much faster than they presently do; thus any additional speed has to come from better logistics management. An automated supply chain system can cut the time needed for deliveries from the Far East to warehouses in the United Kingdom from months to just 25 days.
For companies not wishing to maintain a fully automated supply chain system in-house, third-party logistics (3PL) providers46 or integrators such as UPS Logistics Group47 can process and store all inventory and then ship it within two hours to the precise plant location where it is needed.48 They can also handle such tasks as customs clearance and return and repair of certain merchandise. Manufacturers can shift their supply chain structures much more rapidly and with less pain than is the case with vertically integrated operations.49
By providing inventory management, order fulfillment, and collections, integrators can assist e-commerce customers to enter new markets more quickly without having to invest in warehousing and distribution centers. The scramble is on to be able to fulfill orders that come from anywhere in the world without having to set up significant operations in such markets. The less onerous the process of moving products across a particular border, the easier it becomes for manufacturers to set up where it makes sense for business. Speed is perhaps the most essential goal for any manufacturer looking to develop a 21st-century supply chain.50

Terrorism and Logistics
Before the terrorist attack on New York’s World Trade Center (9/11), international marketers had to contend with myriad details of exporting. Most companies had internal systems to manage documentation, customs, shipping, and other activities necessary to comply with cross-border marketing. “Security” referred to prevention of theft or pilferage. After 9/11, homeland security added a crucial step in logistics management—vigilance at each point in the export/import process. With more than 23 million sea, truck, and rail containers entering the United States each year,51 guarding against the possibility that shipping will be used as a conduit into the United States for terrorists’ weapons is critical. The Cargo and Container Security Initiative (CSI) is one of the U.S. government’s first efforts to enhance post-9/11 security.52

Cargo and Container Security Initiative
The CSI (24-hour rule) requires sea carriers and NVOCC (Non-Vessel Operating Common Carriers)53 to provide U.S. Customs with detailed descriptions (manifests) of the contents of containers bound for the United States 24 hours before a container is loaded on board a vessel. Trucking companies are also bound by the 24-hour rule and are expected to provide a manifest 4 hours before trucks are loaded with products entering the United States and 24 hours in advance when leaving the United States.
A U.S. Customs officer helps direct the use of a mobile gamma ray scanner to reveal the contents of a steel-shipping container, one of the 20 million closed containers that carry cargo into the United States each year. The device, used to help reveal nuclear, biological, or chemical threats inside, is one of more than 100 gamma and x-ray inspection devices deployed at major ports and border crossings into the United States. (AP/Wide World Photos)
The rule allows U.S. Customs officers time to analyze the contents of the container or truck and identify potential terrorist threats before the U.S.-bound shipment is loaded at a foreign port rather than after it arrives at a U.S. port. Cargo manifests must use precise terms as parts of the 24-hour rule; “Freight-All-Kinds” and “Said-to-Contain” or “General Merchandise,” descriptions often used in the past, are no longer acceptable. If any discrepancy appears on the manifest and if it is not presented 24 hours before loading, the shipment can be denied loading and entry into a U.S. port. Whenever an invalid cargo description is used, a “Do Not Load” message is posted and loading is denied. Cargo bound for a foreign port loaded on a vessel with cargo bound for the United States must also have a valid manifest presented within 24 hours or it will not be allowed to be shipped. A violation of the 24-hour rule may prevent the vessel from loading or unloading any cargo, even if the violation applies to only one container.
In an effort to safeguard food against bioterrorism, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) requires the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to receive prior notice of all food for humans and animals imported or offered for import into the United States. Carriers must file notice two hours before reaching a port of entry. Without prior notification, CBP will hold the goods at the port of entry or at an FDA-registered secure facility. Food offered for import with no prior notice or inadequate prior notice will be refused admission. Similar rules apply to drugs and medical devices.
Ports became the gatekeepers for the entire supply chain in preventing illegal entry of terrorists and weapons of mass destruction. They were expected to accomplish this task without interruption of service and without additional cost to shippers. Early on, government regulators saw that if the burden of compliance was not going to slow the movement of goods across borders to a snail’s pace,54 cooperation and compliance throughout the supply chain was necessary.55

Customs–Trade Partnership against Terrorism
The Customs–Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT) is a joint initiative between government and business designed to augment the 24-hour rule by extending security procedures throughout the supply chain.56 The C-TPAT requires importers to establish a documented program for security-risk assessment of overseas suppliers throughout the supply chain; therefore, companies ensure a more secure supply chain for their employees, suppliers, and customers, thus improving the flow of trade. Participation in C-TPAT means faster cargo processing at the border, fewer inspections, dedicated commercial lanes for more rapid border crossings, and an emphasis on self-policing rather than customs verification. Without C-TPAT accreditation, an importer will encounter countless inspections and delays.
C-TPAT certification requires members to:
• Conduct a comprehensive self-assessment of supply-chain security using C-TPAT guidelines jointly developed by U.S. Customs and the trade community.
• Submit a supply-chain security questionnaire to U.S. Customs.
• Identify and complete security checks of vendors and suppliers.57
• Record customs clearance documents and purchase orders.
• Ensure minimum-security standards and procedures for employee screening and facilities security by suppliers.
• Implement a program to communicate C-TPAT guidelines to companies in the supply chain and work toward building the guidelines into relationships with these companies.
• Maintain strict container security procedures, including security seals that are subject to periodic rigorous integrity examination and physical access controls in storage areas to eliminate unauthorized entry, pilferage, and sabotage.58
Even though C-TPAT applies only to U.S. importers, it is important for exporters outside the United States to know that they must also comply in order to be certified to remain in the supply chain59 and thus benefit from faster processing at U.S. borders.
The C-TPAT is an evolving process, and Customs is continually seeking ways to ensure that suppliers and intermediaries, such as freight forwarders and carriers, have systems and processes in place to promote trustworthiness and to document shipments fully and precisely.60 Innovative software,61 advances in information technology (IT), and electronic tracking are integral components in the successful implementation of C-TPAT.
Electronic Tracking
To further strengthen C-TPAT, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) announced plans for electronic container tracking as an integral part of the process. Thus C-TPAT-Plus, as it is called, offers shippers immediate turnaround with no inspection upon arrival in exchange for including technologies that can electronically track incoming containers, monitor them for tampering from the point of origin, and provide a record of events62 while in transit. Such tracking can include RFID63 (radio frequency identification), GPS (global positioning systems), cellular, satellite, ultra-wide-band, “Bluetooth,” bar codes, and optical character recognition. Although numerous technological devices are available, none has been more widely implemented than bar codes and RFID.
For nearly 10 years, the U.S. Department of Defense has been using RFID tags on freight containers (see Exhibit 15.10). The Defense Department asks its suppliers to affix RFID tags on cases and pallets they ship to key receiving sites.64 The RFID tags provide different monitoring capabilities, but all track a container or pallet while in transit and, in some cases, communicate with a receiver at the border or elsewhere. Substantial disruptions in transit are avoided if security questions relating to a cargo shipment have been addressed prior to a vessel being loaded and sailing and then monitored while in transit.65 In addition, RFID promises to deliver cost savings of up to $1.8 trillion globally. Domestically, Wal-Mart,66 Gillette, Procter & Gamble, and Unilever are all adopting RFID.67

Exhibit 15.10: Radio Frequency Identification

Satellite-based positioning systems that register when a container is taken off its predetermined route, weight sensors that register when a container weighs more than originally logged onto shipping documents, and radio tags that automatically report any in-transit intrusion to the destination customs and port authorities68 are examples of some of the more advanced systems being developed and implemented.
Another promising tracking system, the Tamper Evident Secure Container (TESC), a palm-size device that is embedded in a container’s wall, detects unauthorized access to any part of the door (including hinges) through a wireless network.69 The technology can also be adapted to detect holes around the perimeter as well as humans inside the containers. Upon the delivery of a container, an inspector can use a wireless reader to check and disarm the device.
Even with all the checking and vetting, people in the supply chain are the weakest link, and without vigilance among warehouse managers, shippers, and port operators, technology can provide only part of the security needed to protect our borders. We are entering a security economy where everybody has to take responsibility for the safety of the supply chain.
Summary
An awareness of the mechanics of export trade is indispensable to the foreign marketer who engages in exporting goods from one country to another. Although most marketing techniques are open to interpretation and creative application, the mechanics of exporting are exact; they offer little room for interpretation or improvisation because of the requirements of export licenses, quotas, tariffs, export documents, packing, marking, and the various uses of commercial payments. The very nature of the regulations and restrictions surrounding importing and exporting can lead to frequent and rapid change. In handling the mechanics of export trade successfully, the manufacturer must keep abreast of all foreign and domestic changes in requirements and regulations pertaining to the product involved. For firms unable to maintain their own export staffs, foreign freight forwarders can handle many details for a nominal fee.
With paperwork completed, the physical movement of goods must be considered. Transportation mode affects total product cost because of the varying requirements of packing, inventory levels, time requirements, perishability, unit cost, damage and pilfering losses, and customer service. Transportation for each product must be assessed in view of the interdependent nature of all these factors. To ensure optimum distribution at minimal cost, a physical distribution system determines everything from plant location to final customer delivery in terms of the most efficient use of capital investment, resources, production, inventory, packing, and transportation. The seemingly endless rules, regulations of exporting, demands of efficient global logistics, and the absolute necessity to comply with national security regulations can be daunting. Fortunately, the continuous innovations in information technology, the Internet, and software programs can minimize much of the burden associated with global marketing.

16: Integrated Marketing Communications and International Advertising

Global Perspective: BARBIE VERSUS MULAN
For years, Barbie dolls sold in Japan looked different from their U.S. counterparts. They had Asian facial features, black hair, and Japanese-inspired fashions. Then Mattel Inc. conducted consumer research around the world and learned something surprising: The original Barbie, with her yellow hair and blue eyes, played as well in Hong Kong as it did in Hollywood. Girls didn’t care if Barbie didn’t look like them. “It’s all about fantasies and hair,” says Peter Broegger, general manager of Mattel’s Asian operations. “Blond Barbie sells just as well in Asia as in the U.S.”
Major toy makers are rethinking one of the basic tenets of their $55 billion global industry—that children in different countries want different playthings. The implications are significant for both kids and companies. In the past, giants such as Mattel, Hasbro Inc., and LEGO Co. produced toys and gear in a variety of styles. Increasingly, they are designing and marketing one version worldwide. This shift has led to a series of massive merchandise blitzkriegs, with companies deluging boys and girls around the globe simultaneously with identical dolls, cars, and gadgets.
For example, Mattel’s Rapunzel Barbie, whose ankle-length blonde locks cascade down her pink ball gown, was released on the same day last fall in 59 countries including the United States—the company’s biggest product launch ever. Since then, Rapunzel Barbie and related merchandise has generated $200 million in global sales, nearly half of that outside the United States. Mattel no longer makes Asian-featured Barbies.
Two recent developments are changing kids’ tastes. One is the rapid worldwide expansion of cable and satellite TV channels, which along with movies and the Internet expose millions of kids to the same popular icons. For example, Walt Disney Co. now operates 24 Disney-branded cable and satellite channels in 67 countries outside the United States—up from 0 eight years ago. The other development is the widening international reach of retailing giants such as Wal-Mart Stores Inc., Toys “R” Us Inc., and Carrefour SA, which have opened some 2,300 stores outside their home markets. Increasingly, the mass retailers enter into exclusive deals with toy and consumer-products companies, allowing them to stage huge, coordinated promotional campaigns.
For example, when Rapunzel Barbie had its debut, Wal-Mart stores in South Korea and China hired local women to dress up like the doll and greet children as they entered. At the same time, the Mattel TV ad campaign was broadcast around the world in 15-, 20-, and 30-second spots—in 35 different languages. Mattel’s Barbie Web site, which has eight language options, featured Rapunzel stories and games. A computer-animated movie, called Barbie as Rapunzel, was broadcast on TV and released on video and DVD around the world, and it was even shown in some theaters overseas.
In Madrid, the launch was accompanied by a “premiere” of the movie and special promotions of comb sets and other accessories at Carrefour stores across Spain. After attending the premiere, the kids could and did buy the dolls. For some parents, this means Christmas shopping later in the year at the often frenetic Toys “R” Us in Madrid for stuffed dragons from the movie or a Barbie laptop computer, a Barbie kitchen set, a Barbie travel van, and a host of other Barbie gadgets and accessories.
Some toys, games, and animated characters do not cross national boundaries. German children, for example, rarely play with action figures. According to the NPD Group, which tracks toy sales, action figures make up just 1 percent of the German toy market, compared with 5 percent of the U.S. and 6 percent of the U.K. toy markets. American kids want NASCAR toy cars, while European kids want Formula One models. Cheerleader-themed anything is irrelevant outside the United States. And few American companies sell toys in the Islamic world. Mattel, the world’s largest toy company, has no plans to do so.
Perhaps Disney’s Jasmine will well sell there, though she’s actually inappropriately dressed for many of Islamic faith. Jasmine is just one of the new series of “Princess” dolls aimed directly at Barbie’s dominance of the doll category. Snow White, Pocahontas, and Mulan are others in the band. Their diversity may have broader appeal. Disney uses pink in the packaging and Mattel objects. Disney is also mindful of the fashion-conscious Barbie critics. Disney Princess is more about tiaras and wands rather than handbags and high heels. Where Barbie is more a role model, and therefore more objectionable to parents, Disney is putting its emphasis on the fantasy. Too bad someone isn’t emphasizing education.
Indeed, too bad for Mattel—despite the comprehensiveness of its integrated marketing communications plan, sales of Barbie have declined sharply. Competitors’ more ethnically diverse product lines sold better, including Mulan, Bratz, and Fulla, as described in Chapter 5.
Sources: Lisa Bannon and Carlta Vitshum, “One-Toy-Fits-All: How Industry Learned to Love the Global Kid,” The Wall Street Journal, April 29, 2003, p. A1; “A Challenge to Barbie, Toy Franchises,” The Economist, April 19, 2003, p. 66; Christopher Palmeri, “Hair-Pulling in the Dollhouse,” BusinessWeek, May 2, 2005, pp. 76–77.

Integrated marketing communications (IMC)
are composed of advertising, sales promotions, trade shows, personal selling, direct selling, and public relations—almost all are included in the Barbie campaign described in the Global Perspective. Indeed, even the original Wall Street Journal story was most likely prompted by a company press release. All these mutually reinforcing elements of the promotional mix have as their common objective the successful sale of a product or service. In many markets, the availability of appropriate communication channels to customers can determine entry decisions. For example, most toy manufacturers would agree that toys cannot be marketed profitably in countries without commercial television advertising directed toward children. Thus product and service development must be informed by research regarding the availability of communication channels. Once a market offering is developed to meet target market needs, intended customers must be informed of the offering’s value and availability. Often different messages are appropriate for different communications channels, and vice versa.
For most companies, advertising and personal selling are the major components in the marketing communications mix. In this chapter, the other elements of IMC are briefly discussed first. The goal of most companies is to achieve the synergies possible when sales promotions, public relations efforts, and advertising are used in concert. However, the primary focus of this chapter is on international advertising. The topic of the next chapter is global sales management.
Sales Promotions in International Markets

Sales promotions
are marketing activities that stimulate consumer purchases and improve retailer or middlemen effectiveness and cooperation. Cents-off, in-store demonstrations, samples, coupons, gifts, product tie-ins, contests, sweepstakes, sponsorship of special events such as concerts and fairs (even donut parades), and point-of-purchase displays are types of sales promotion devices designed to supplement advertising and personal selling in the promotional mix. The Rapunzel Barbie movie premiere is too.
Sales promotions are short-term efforts directed to the consumer or retailer to achieve such specific objectives as consumer product trial or immediate purchase, consumer introduction to the store or brand, gaining retail point-of-purchase displays, encouraging stores to stock the product, and supporting and augmenting advertising and personal sales efforts. For example, Procter & Gamble’s introduction of Ariel detergent in Egypt included the “Ariel Road Show,” a puppet show (not the Little Mermaid!) that was taken to local markets in villages, where more than half of all Egyptians still live. The show drew huge crowds, entertained people, told about Ariel’s better performance without the use of additives, and sold the brand through a distribution van at a nominal discount. Besides creating brand awareness for Ariel, the road show helped overcome the reluctance of the rural retailers to handle the premium-priced Ariel. Perhaps our all-time favorite example in this genre is the Simpsons’ international festival, sponsored by Fox in Hollywood. Spain’s Simpson trivia champion defeated 11 other global contestants in the “Bart Bowl World Finals.”
In markets in which the consumer is hard to reach because of media limitations, the percentage of the promotional budget allocated to sales promotions may have to be increased. In some less developed countries, sales promotions constitute the major portion of the promotional effort in rural and less accessible parts of the market. In parts of Latin America, a portion of the advertising sales budget for both Pepsi-Cola and Coca-Cola is spent on carnival trucks, which make frequent trips to outlying villages to promote their products. When a carnival truck makes a stop in a village, it may show a movie or provide some other kind of entertainment; the price of admission is an unopened bottle of the product purchased from the local retailer. The unopened bottle is to be exchanged for a cold bottle plus a coupon for another bottle. This promotional effort tends to stimulate sales and encourages local retailers, who are given prior notice of the carnival truck’s arrival, to stock the product. Nearly 100 percent coverage of retailers in the village is achieved with this type of promotion. In other situations, village merchants may be given free samples, have the outsides of their stores painted, or receive clock signs in attempts to promote sales.
An especially effective promotional tool when the product concept is new or has a very small market share is product sampling. Nestlé Baby Foods faced such a problem in France in its attempt to gain share from Gerber, the leader. The company combined sampling with a novel sales promotion program to gain brand recognition and to build goodwill. Because most French people take off for a long vacation in the summertime, piling the whole family into the car and staying at well-maintained campgrounds, Nestlé provided rest-stop structures along the highway where parents could feed and change their babies. Sparkling clean Le Relais Bébés are located along main travel routes. Sixty-four hostesses at these rest stops welcome 120,000 baby visits and dispense 600,000 samples of baby food each year. There are free disposable diapers, a changing table, and high chairs for the babies to sit in while dining. Finally, while all software firms decry piracy in foreign markets as a costly crime, most recognize that in some senses it is actually a form of product trial.1
As is true in advertising, the success of a promotion may depend on local adaptation. Furthermore, research has shown that responses to promotions can vary across promotional types2 and cultures. Major constraints are imposed by local laws, which may not permit premiums or free gifts to be given. Some countries’ laws control the amount of discount given at retail, others require permits for all sales promotions, and in at least one country, no competitor is permitted to spend more on a sales promotion than any other company selling the product. Effective sales promotions can enhance the advertising and personal selling efforts and, in some instances, may be effective substitutes when environmental constraints prevent the full utilization of advertising.
International Public Relations
Creating good relationships with the popular press and other media to help companies communicate messages to their publics—customers, the general public, and governmental regulators—is the role of
public relations (PR)
.3 The job consists of not only encouraging the press to cover positive stories about companies (as in the Barbie story) but also managing unfavorable rumors, stories, and events. Regarding the latter, the distinction between advertising and public relations has become an issue now considered by the United States Supreme Court. Nike was criticized for using “sweatshop” labor in Asia and responded to critics with paid advertising. The Court decided that freedom of speech issues did not pertain to the ads, and the associated civil suit against the firm for false advertising could go forward. Indeed, Nike appears to have exacerbated and extended the problem from a public relations standpoint by taking the case all the way to the Supreme Court.
The importance of public relations in international marketing is perhaps best demonstrated by the Bridgestone/Firestone Tires safety recall disaster of 2000. The Japanese company was blamed for over 100 deaths in the United States because of its defective tires. True to form in such corporate disasters, the Japanese CEO of the American subsidiary “declared his full and personal responsibility” for the deaths at a U.S. Senate hearing. Such an approach is good public relations in Japan. However, in Washington, senators were not interested in apologies. Moreover, the company blamed its customer, Ford Motor Company, for the problems as well, accusing Ford of telling customers to underinflate the tires for a smoother ride. The problem spread to other markets—Saudi Arabia banned imports of vehicles equipped with Firestone tires. Unbelievably, the company’s response to the Saudi action has been to denounce it as a violation of WTO agreements. The global impact of this product quality and public relations disaster is certain to be great and long lasting. Perhaps the company would have been better off promoting its ISO 9000 rating—refer to the picture in Chapter 13 on page 381.
Public relations firms’ billings in the international arena have been growing at double-digit rates for some years. Handling such international PR problems as global workplace standards and product safety recalls has become big business for companies serving corporate clients such as Mattel Toys,4 McDonald’s, and, of course, Nike. Fast growth is also being fueled by the expanding international communications industry. New companies need public relations consultation for “building an international profile,” as the marketing manager of VDSL Systems explained when hiring MCC, a prominent British firm. Surprising growth is occurring in emerging markets like Russia as well. The industry itself is experiencing a wave of mergers and takeovers, including the blending of the largest international advertising agencies and the most well-established PR firms.
Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) at Quiksilver
In marketing high-quality branded lifestyle products, image is everything. Quiksilver has been one of the most innovative companies in creating new ways to deliver the “the mountain and the wave” images around the world.
With global revenues exceeding $2 billion in recent years, Quiksilver has grown quite fast since its 1969 beginnings in Torquay, Australia. There Alan Green had started working on prototypes for a new kind of board short, using aspects of wetsuit technology such as snaps and Velcro flies. The new design proved more suitable for the demands of big-wave wipeouts. The “mountain and wave” logo followed in 1970.
Now Quiksilver is headquartered in Huntington Beach, CA (aka Surf City), and is one of the leading firms in “Velcro Valley”—the actionwear capital of the world in Orange County. The Quiksilver brand family includes 15 brands, led by Quiksilver, Roxy, DC, and Rossignol. It counts among its markets six continents, over 90 countries, and 236 million youths. The majority of its sales are overseas with 45% in the Americas, 44% in Europe, and 11% in Asia Pacific. Quiksilver distributes its products worldwide through 406 company-owned stores, 245 licensed stores, and 56 stores in licensed and joint venture territories. The Quiksilver sales mix is composed of 58% apparel, 15% footwear, 14% winter sports equipment, and 13% accessories.
Exhibited on the front cover of this book (100% Sponsorship of Kelly Slater, the world’s best surfer) and here is just a representative part of the breadth of Quiksilver’s integrated marketing communications:
Greg Macias, Vice President of Marketing explains how IMC decisions are made:
Globally, Quiksilver has three major centers of management: U.S. (Huntington Beach, CA), Europe (Biarritz, France), and Asia Pacific (Torquay, Australia). There are other management offices in China, Indonesia, Korea, Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, Canada, and Japan.

The head marketers in each of the three major regions meet three times a year formally to discuss goals, strategy, and best practices. This also happens in the general management and retail disciplines.

Media decisions are made on a regional level. There are no “global buys.”

A billboard and store front in Moscow, Russia.
Roxy’s sponsorship of Sofia Mulanovich, South America’s first champion surfer. (Covered Images)
At home in the OC the company supports the Ocean Institute financially and with a visit from its Indies Trade boat, which travels the world promoting clean water environments and, of course, the company image. (© Tom Cozad/Newport surfshots.com)

We do have a global brand manager and he oversees a budget that supports global initiatives, that is, initiatives that can have a significant global effect and can be utilized by each region. The best examples of this are athletes and Web casts of key events.

Quiksilver sponsored the 2005 Great Wall of China first-ever leap by Danny Way, a southern California skateboarder. (AP Photo/Greg Baker)

We agree to share a common brand promise, global goals, a singular logo and an annual art palette. Each region builds their own specific communication executions but many assets are shared so advertising looks fairly consistent.

The firm uses perhaps the broadest array of advertising media as well—from walls in Istanbul to an entertainment loaded Web site.
Like most businesses, we are constantly changing and trying to improve our message, products, relationships, and business practices. In my humble opinion, our biggest asset is our ability to evolve and not get entrenched in tradition.

Greg Macias
Huntington Beach, CA
CROSSING BORDERS 16.1: PR in the PRC
In 1999 an industry was born in China when the Ministry of Labor and Social Security recognized public relations as a profession. These excerpts from the China Daily illustrate how institutions evolve in emerging economies:
More laws are needed to regulate China’s fledgling public relations profession, an industry leader said yesterday in Beijing. “To seize the enormous business opportunities promised by China’s upcoming entry in the World Trade Organization, we need specific laws to regulate the market, curb malpractice and promote competency of local PR firms,” said Li Yue, vice-director of the China International Public Relations Association. Her comments were made during a national symposium on public relations, also know as PR.
Symposium delegates said they were concerned about the disorder in the PR industry and the frequent personnel changes in PR firms. They urged the passage of more laws to put an end to what many consider to be the chaos in the profession. Industry insiders cited a limited talent pool, cut-throat price wars and low professional standards as the industry’s major problems.
In the 1980s, most Chinese people would think of reception girls, lavish banquets, and the use of connections when public relations were mentioned. Now, public relations firms are seen as helping their clients gain better name recognition of their companies. They also manage corporate images.
To help the industry develop, the Labor and Social Security Ministry this year instituted a nationwide qualifying exam for PR professionals. In 1999, the industry reported a total business volume of $120 million, while employing 3,000 people. There are now more than 2,000 PR firms and business volume is over $500 million.
Sources: “China: More Regulation of PR Sought,” China Daily, January 20, 2000, p. 3; “PRW: The Top European PR Consultancies 2000,” PR Week, June 23, 2000, p. 7; “PR Firms Gaining Experience by Working with Multinational Firms,” Industry Updates, June 20, 2005; “Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide/China and JL McGregor Announce Strategic Alliance,” PR Newswire, June 13, 2007.
Corporate sponsorships might be classified as an aspect of public relations, though their connections to advertising are also manifest. Tobacco companies have been particularly creative at using sports event sponsorships to avoid countries’ advertising regulations associated with more traditional media. Other prominent examples are Coca-Cola’s sponsorship of European football (soccer) matches or Ford’s sponsorship of the Australian Open tennis tournament. McDonald’s executed a huge international IMC campaign surrounding its sponsorship of the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Included were Olympic-themed food promotions, packaging and in-store signs, TV and print ads, and Web chats with superstar athletes such as American basketball player Grant Hill. In addition to the various promotions targeting the 43 million daily customers in their 27,000 restaurants around the world, the firm targeted the athletes themselves. As the official restaurant partner, McDonald’s got to operate seven restaurants in Sydney, including the two serving the Olympic Village. During the three weeks of the Games, nearly 1.5 million burgers were served to the athletes, officials, coaches, media staffers, and spectators. McDonald’s has continued as official corporate sponsors of the Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008) games as well. Finally, one of the more innovative sponsorship arrangements was Intel’s agreement with the Tour de France to support the official Tour Web site, www.letour.com. Of course, all these aspects of IMC work best when coordinated and reinforced with a consistent advertising campaign, the topic covered in the rest of the chapter.
International Advertising
Since the turn of the century, growth in global advertising expenditures has slowed with the global economy. Most estimates of total expenditures for 2007 are in the neighborhood of $600 billion, and one forecast has them growing to over $700 billion by 2012, despite the global financial difficulties starting in 2008.5 A 4 percent annual growth rate was predicted through 2006, but that of course depended on a resurgence of growth in the general global economy. In this slow-growth global economic environment, the advertising industry continues to undergo substantial restructuring. Global mass media advertising is a powerful tool for cultural change, and as such, it receives continuing scrutiny by a wide variety of institutions. Even so, most scholars agree that we are just beginning to understand some of the key issues involved in international advertising.
Exhibits 16.1 and 16.2 illustrate the biggest companies and product categories for international advertising. Although automotive companies dominate the lists, Procter & Gamble was the global champion of spending. Also, notice the lack of growth across many of the categories and companies. We also broke out the spending patterns for two emerging markets in Exhibit 16.3. Demonstrated is a key difference in stages of development between China and Russia. Whereas the latter is dominated by foreign food firms, China is creating its own home-grown brands of pharmaceuticals. Judging by the relative progress of the two countries on this single criterion, China looks like it is further up the ladder of economic development.
Exhibit 16.1: Top 20 Global Advertisers ($ millions)*

Exhibit 16.2: Top 100 Advertisers’ Global Spending by Category ($ millions)

Exhibit 16.3a: Russia’s Top Ten Advertisers ($ millions)

Exhibit 16.3b: China’s Top Ten Advertisers ($ millions)

Of all the elements of the marketing mix, decisions involving advertising are those most woften affected by cultural differences among country markets. Consumers respond in terms of their culture, its style, feelings, value systems, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions. Because advertising’s function is to interpret or translate the qualities of products and services in terms of consumer needs, wants, desires, and aspirations, the emotional appeals, symbols, persuasive approaches, and other characteristics of an advertisement must coincide with cultural norms if the ad is to be effective.
Reconciling an international advertising campaign with the cultural uniqueness of markets is the challenge confronting the international or global marketer. The basic framework and concepts of international advertising are essentially the same wherever employed.
Seven steps are involved:
1. Perform marketing research.
2. Specify the goals of the communication.
3. Develop the most effective message(s) for the market segments selected.
4. Select effective media.
5. Compose and secure a budget based on what is required to meet goals.
6. Execute the campaign.
7. Evaluate the campaign relative to the goals specified.
These vehicular ads make an effective advertising medium even in a dense London fog. Because most London cabs are black, the Snickers ad catches the eye immediately.
Of these seven steps, developing messages almost always represents the most daunting task for international marketing managers. So, that topic is emphasized here. Nuances of international media are then discussed. Advertising agencies are ordinarily involved in all seven steps and are the subject of a separate section. Finally, the chapter closes with a discussion of broader issues of governmental controls on advertising.
Advertising Strategy and Goals
The goals of advertising around the world vary substantially. For example, Chinese manufacturers are establishing new brands as their economy expands; Unilever is introducing a new product-line extension, Dove Shampoo, in East Asian markets; and Russia’s airline Aeroflot is seeking to upgrade its quality image. All these marketing problems require careful marketing research and thoughtful and creative advertising campaigns in country, regional, and global markets.
Intense competition for world markets and the increasing sophistication of foreign consumers have led to the need for more sophisticated advertising strategies. Increased costs, problems of coordinating advertising programs in multiple countries, and a desire for a broader company or product image have caused multinational companies (MNCs) to seek greater control and efficiency without sacrificing local responsiveness. In the quest for more effective and responsive promotion programs, the policies covering centralized or decentralized authority,6 use of single or multiple foreign or domestic agencies, appropriation and allocation procedures, copy, media, and research are being examined. More and more multinational companies can be seen to be managing the balance between standardization of advertising themes and customization.7 And recently, as described in Chapter 12, more companies are favoring the latter.
A case in point is the Gillette Company, which sells 800 products in more than 200 countries. Gillette has a consistent worldwide image as a masculine, sports-oriented company, but its products have no such consistent image. Its razors, blades, toiletries, and cosmetics are known by many names. Trac II blades in the United States are more widely known worldwide as G-II, and Atra blades are called Contour in Europe and Asia. Silkience hair conditioner is known as Soyance in France, Sientel in Italy, and Silkience in Germany. Whether or not global brand names could have been chosen for Gillette’s many existing products is speculative. However, Gillette’s current corporate philosophy of globalization provides for an umbrella statement, “Gillette, the Best a Man Can Get,” in all advertisements for men’s toiletries products in the hope of providing some common image.
A similar situation exists for Unilever, which sells a cleaning liquid called Vif in Switzerland, Viss in Germany, Jif in Britain and Greece, and Cif in France. This situation is a result of Unilever marketing separately to each of these countries. At this point, it would be difficult for Gillette or Unilever to standardize their brand names, because each brand is established in its market and therefore has equity. Nortel Networks has used a “local heroes” approach in its international advertising. The company picks local celebrities to pitch standardized messages across national markets for their telecommunications services.
In many cases, standardized products may be marketed globally. But because of differences in cultures, they still require a different advertising appeal in different markets.8 For instance, Ford’s model advertising varies by nation because of language and societal nuances. Ford advertises the affordability of its Escort in the United States, where the car is seen as entry level. But in India, Ford launched the Escort as a premium car. “It’s not unusual to see an Escort with a chauffeur there,” said a Ford executive.
Finally, many companies are using market segmentation strategies that ignore national boundaries—business buyers or high-income consumers across the globe are often targeted in advertising, for example.9 Others are proposing newer global market segments defined by “consumer cultures” related to shared sets of consumption-related symbols—convenience, youth, America, internationalism, and humanitarianism are examples.10 Other, more traditional segments are product and region related; those are discussed next.
Product Attribute and Benefit Segmentation
As discussed in the chapters on product and services development (Chapters 12 and 13), a market offering really is a bundle of satisfactions the buyer receives. This package of satisfactions, or utilities, includes the primary function of the product or service along with many other benefits imputed by the values and customs of the culture. Different cultures often seek the same value or benefits from the primary function of a product—for example, the ability of an automobile to get from point A to point B, a camera to take a picture, or a wristwatch to tell time. But while usually agreeing on the benefit of the primary function of a product, consumers may perceive other features and psychological attributes of the item differently.
Consider the different market-perceived needs for a camera. In the United States, excellent pictures with easy, foolproof operation are expected by most of the market; in Germany and Japan, a camera must take excellent pictures, but the camera must also be state of the art in design. In Africa, where penetration of cameras is less than 20 percent of the households, the concept of picture taking must be sold. In all three markets, excellent pictures are expected (i.e., the primary function of a camera is demanded), but the additional utility or satisfaction derived from a camera differs among cultures. Many products produce expectations beyond the common benefit sought by all.
Dannon’s brand of yogurt promotes itself as the brand that understands the relationship between health and food, but it communicates the message differently, depending on the market.11 In the United States, where Dannon yogurt is seen as a healthy, vibrant food, the brand celebrates its indulgent side. In France, however, Dannon was seen as too pleasure oriented. Therefore, Dannon created the Institute of Health, a real research center dedicated to food and education. The end result is the same message but communicated differently—a careful balance of health and pleasure.
The Blue Diamond Growers Association’s advertising of almonds is an excellent example of the fact that some products are best advertised only on a local basis. Blue Diamond had a very successful ad campaign in the United States showing almond growers knee-deep in almonds while pleading with the audience, “A can a week, that’s all we ask.” The objective of the campaign was to change the perception of almonds as a special-occasion treat to an everyday snack food. The campaign was a success; in addition to helping change the perception of almonds as a snack food, it received millions of dollars worth of free publicity for Blue Diamond from regional and national news media. The successful U.S. ad was tested in Canada for possible use outside the United States. The Canadian reaction was vastly different; to them, the whole idea was just too silly. And further, Canadians prefer to buy products from Canadian farmers, not American farmers. This response led to the decision to study each market closely and design an advertisement for each country market. The only similarity among commercials airing in markets in New York, Tokyo, Moscow, Toronto, or Stockholm is the Blue Diamond logo.
In Japan, the Blue Diamond brand of almonds was an unknown commodity until Blue Diamond launched its campaign of exotic new almond-based products that catered to local tastes. Such things as almond tofu, almond miso soup, and Clamond—a nutritional snack concocted from a mixture of dried small sardines and slivered almonds—were featured in magazine ads and in promotional cooking demonstrations. Television ads featured educational messages on how to use almonds in cooking, their nutritional value, the versatility of almonds as a snack, and the California mystique and health benefits of almonds. As a result, Japan is now the association’s largest importer of almonds.
In Korea, the emphasis was on almonds and the West. Commercials featured swaying palms, beach scenes, and a guitar-playing crooner singing “Blue Diamond” to the tune of “Blue Hawaii.” And so it goes in the 94 countries where Blue Diamond sells its almonds. Blue Diamond assumes that no two markets will react the same, that each has its own set of differences—be they “cultural, religious, ethnic, dietary, or otherwise”—and that each will require a different marketing approach, a different strategy. The wisdom of adapting its product advertising for each market is difficult to question; two-thirds of all Blue Diamond’s sales are outside the United States.
Regional Segmentation
The emergence of pan-European communications media is enticing many companies to push the balance toward more standardized promotional efforts. As media coverage across Europe expands, it will become more common for markets to be exposed to multiple messages and brands of the same product. To avoid the confusion that results when a market is exposed to multiple brand names and advertising messages, as well as for reasons of efficiency, companies strive for harmony in brand names, advertising, and promotions across Europe.
Mars, the candy company, traditionally used several brand names for the same product but has found it necessary to select a single name to achieve uniformity in its standardized advertising campaigns. As a result, a candy bar sold in some parts of Europe under the brand name Raider was changed to Twix, the name used in the United States and the United Kingdom.
Along with changes in behavior patterns, legal restrictions are slowly being eliminated, and viable market segments across country markets are emerging. Although Europe will never be a single homogeneous market for every product, that does not mean that companies should shun the idea of developing Europe-wide promotional programs. A pan-European promotional strategy would mean identifying a market segment across all European countries and designing a promotional concept appealing to market segment similarities. Mars candy is a good example of this strategy.
Microsoft annually spends more than a billion dollars on its global advertising. The company has nearly 100 subsidiaries around the world. The management processes traditionally used to develop the Corporate Brand and Office campaigns are instructive.
Things began with marketing research in selected countries regarding key market segments, most attractive product features, and potential themes. The data is analyzed, strategies established and then sent to advertising agencies’ for the development of a set of universal value propositions and concepts.
In partnership with Microsoft corporate in Redmond, the agencies then produce the selected core concepts, video footage, photographic layouts, and copy themes that comprise the set of universal materials. Then, in cooperation with their local agencies, managers at each subsidiary chose the most appropriate materials for their particular consumers and markets. The most customization was and is required in Brazil, China, India, and Russia—all are plagued by major piracy problems and are in various stages of maturity. Also, since Japan has the firm’s second-largest market behind only the United States, executives there have been given more freedom to adapt to local requirements and tastes.

Corporate/Brand Image Campaign
The purpose behind this corporate campaign is to complement the firm’s heavy product-oriented marketing with a program that explains Microsoft’s broader corporate mission. That is, “to help people and businesses throughout the world reach their full potential.” The campaign serves to clarify the image of the firm and emphasizes the contribution its products and services have made to technology and the practical applications of personal computing in business, science, education, and so on. The program runs in more than 30 countries (here you see the versions used in Australia, Taiwan, and France) including TV ads with local copy, voice-overs, and other adaptations to the global theme. The majority of the ads are pre- and post-tested in multiple countries to check for cultural nuance. The print and TV ads are complemented by an associated PR, government, and community affairs campaign.
Product-Specific Advertising
Here Microsoft Office is pitted against its toughest competitor—earlier versions of itself. So the goal of the campaign is to break up the inertia and facilitate an upgrade cycle. The key message is the way the world (of information workers) works is much different today than it was three to five years ago, or one or two versions ago of Office. The ads focus on the product’s “new” facilitation of collaboration and teamwork as the key attribute.

Since there is so much satisfaction (85 percent with Office), the firm needs to do something different or risk just reinforcing with customers previous versions of Office. You can see the extent of local adaptation in the English, German, and Japanese versions of the ads. This theme was supplemented by a heavy public relations campaign about the changing information worker environment. In addition, in keeping with the evolution of media, this campaign had a heavy digital component with over half the media being in the on-line space. This allowed for greater trial/sampling of the new version of Office as well as more direct customer interaction and feedback.
Such programs are ordinarily run in more than 30 countries. The translations are done locally, so, for example, the copy is different between Mexico and Spain. A variety of themes and media (print and outdoor) are used across countries. And, in any one country, several themes and media may be used, particularly in the larger, more diverse markets.
Finally, the executions are then tested in each market and adjustments are made. This global approach makes sense for Microsoft because the product, its uses, and its market share are virtually the same across markets.
Online Behavioral Advertising – The Worldwide Revolution
Finally, the last panel—an example of Microsoft’s online advertising—reflects a key change in advertising practice for corporations around the world. That is, during the last few years companies’ expenditures on online advertising have exploded to more than $20 billion in the United States alone. Expenditures on traditional media (print, TV, etc.) are fast being replaced by online options. In 2007 a tipping point was reached with regard to targeting such expenditures via online tracking of consumer search, purchase, and usage behaviors. That year Microsoft itself made its largest corporate acquisition ever spending $6 billion for aQuantive, one of the leading firms in digital-ads located in nearby Seattle. The new technologies allow for more efficiently reaching potential customers with the most appropriate messages based on observations of specific online behavior patterns.
Most recently advertising regulators worldwide are trying to keep up with the fast-evolving technologies—in particular, international consumers and critics are concerned about protecting personal and corporate privacy and data security. In the United States the Federal Trade Commission has begun holding hearings on corporate practices. Microsoft touts its own online advertising best practices including “commitments to user notice, user control, anonymization, and security.”
(Images Courtesy Microsoft Corporation)
With a common language (Brazil being the one exception), Latin America also lends itself to regionwide promotion programs. Eveready Battery has successfully developed a 16-country campaign with one message instead of the patchwork of messages that previously existed. Cable and satellite TV channels also provide regionwide media. For example, HBO promoted the American cable-TV hit Six Feet Under using a pan-Asian campaign.
The Message: Creative Challenges

Global Advertising and the Communications Process
International communications may fail for a variety of reasons: A message may not get through because of media inadequacy, the message may be received by the intended audience but not be understood because of different cultural interpretations, or the message may reach the intended audience and be understood but have no effect because the marketer did not correctly assess the needs and wants or even the thinking processes12 of the target market.
In the international communications process, each of the seven identifiable steps ultimately can affect the accuracy of the process. As illustrated in Exhibit 16.4, the process consists of the following:
Exhibit 16.4: The International Communications Process

1. An information source. An international marketing executive with a product message to communicate.
2. Encoding. The message from the source converted into effective symbolism for transmission to a receiver.
3. A message channel. The sales force and/or advertising media that convey the encoded message to the intended receiver.
4. Decoding. The interpretation by the receiver of the symbolism transmitted from the information source.
5. Receiver. Consumer action by those who receive the message and are the target for the thought transmitted.
6. Feedback. Information about the effectiveness of the message that flows from the receiver (the intended target) back to the information source for evaluation of the effectiveness of the process.
7.
Noise. Uncontrollable and unpredictable influences such as competitive activities and confusion that detract from the process and affect any or all of the other six steps.
Unfortunately, the process is not as simple as just sending a message via a medium to a receiver and being certain that the intended message sent is the same one perceived by the receiver. In Exhibit 16.4, the communications process steps are encased in Cultural Context A and Cultural Context B to illustrate the influences complicating the process when the message is encoded in one culture and decoded in another. If not properly considered, the different cultural contexts can increase the probability of misunderstandings. Research in the area suggests that effective communication demands the existence of a “psychological overlap” between the sender and the receiver; otherwise, a message falling outside the receiver’s perceptual field may transmit an unintended meaning. It is in this area that even the most experienced companies make blunders.
Most promotional misfires or mistakes in international marketing are attributable to one or several of these steps not properly reflecting cultural influences or a general lack of knowledge about the target market. Referring to Exhibit 16.4, the information source is a marketer with a product to sell to a specific target market. The product message to be conveyed should reflect the needs and wants of the target market; however, often the actual market needs and the marketer’s perception of them do not coincide. This disconnect is especially true when the marketer relies more on the self-reference criterion (SRC) than on effective research. It can never be assumed that “if it sells well in one country, it will sell in another.” For instance, bicycles designed and sold in the United States to consumers fulfilling recreational exercise needs are not sold as effectively for the same reason in a market where the primary use of the bicycle is transportation. Cavity-reducing fluoride toothpaste sells well in the United States, where healthy teeth are perceived as important, but has limited appeal in markets such as Great Britain and the French areas of Canada, where the reason for buying toothpaste is breath control. From the onset of the communications process, if basic needs are incorrectly defined, communications fail because an incorrect or meaningless message is received, even though the remaining steps in the process are executed properly.
The encoding step causes problems even with a “proper” message. At this step, such factors as color,13 timing, values,14 beliefs, humor,15 tastes, and appropriateness of spokespersons16 can cause the international marketer to symbolize the message incorrectly. For example, the marketer wants the product to convey coolness so the color green is used; however, people in the tropics might decode green as dangerous or associate it with disease. Another example of the encoding process misfiring was a perfume presented against a backdrop of rain that, for Europeans, symbolized a clean, cool, refreshing image but to Africans was a symbol of fertility. The ad prompted many viewers to ask if the perfume was effective against infertility. David Beckham may be a wonderful spokesperson in most of the world, but in the United States, even the greatest soccer players get little recognition.17
Problems of literacy,18 media availability, and types of media create challenges in the communications process at the encoding step. Message channels must be carefully selected if an encoded message is to reach the consumer. Errors such as using the Internet as a medium when only a small percentage of an intended market has access to the Internet, or using print media for a channel of communications when the majority of the intended users cannot read or do not read the language in the medium, are examples of ineffective media channel selection in the communications process.

Red Works! Since we first wrote about the color’s power some 10 years ago, a lot has been happening. Notice the Coke advantage at work—the red contrasts with the outdoor environment, while the Cristal aqua blends more with the blue sky. Cristal is a popular brand of bottled water actually owned by Coca-Cola and sold in the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. The Coke ads are emblazoned on a café in the central plaza of Canas, Costa Rica. Or you can spend it like Beckham—in addition to Vodafone and Nike on his jersey, David Beckham, here in his Manchester United red (© Tom Purslow/Manchester United via Getty Images), also represents Pepsi, Adidas, Castrol, Upper Deck, Marks & Spencer, Police, Meiji, Tokyo Beauty Center, etc., etc., etc. The Spanish soccer power Real Madrid spent $40 million buying Beckham’s contract from his British home team, and then the Los Angeles Galaxy moved him there. One disadvantage of the moves south—the white jerseys of the Spanish and American teams don’t catch the eye as did the Manchester United red. Most recently Beckham has teamed up with the Red campaign (along with Oprah and Bono) to promote products of firms that donate revenues to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS. Other firms involved in the project include are Dell, Microsoft, American Express, Armani, Converse, Hallmark, Apple, and The Gap.19 We also note that the world’s most famous athlete is not Beckham, or even last-day-red-shirt-wearing Tiger Woods. Instead, it’s Formula 1 racecar driver Michael Schumacher (AP Photo/Mark Barker). The 35-year-old German makes more money than any other sports figure as he dominates the sport most watched on television globally. And the flamboyant red jumpsuit and red Ferraris help. The other red brands—Marlboro and Vodafone—love him too. Finally, even PepsiCo is blushing over Coke’s dominance: It’s introducing an all-red can in China.20 If it succeeds there, perhaps Pepsi will just match other countries’ flags as well—red, white, and blue works not only in the United States but in Russia and France as well.
Decoding problems are generally created by improper encoding, which caused such errors as Pepsi’s “Come Alive” slogan being decoded as “Come out of the grave.” Chevrolet’s brand name for the Nova model (which means new star) was decoded into Spanish as No Va!, meaning “it doesn’t go.” In another misstep, a translation that was supposed to be decoded as “hydraulic ram” was instead decoded as “wet sheep.” In a Nigerian ad, a platinum blonde sitting next to the driver of a Renault was intended to enhance the image of the automobile. However, the model was perceived as not respectable and so created a feeling of shame. An ad used for Eveready Energizer batteries with the Energizer bunny was seen by Hungarian consumers as touting a bunny toy, not a battery.
City streets in Singapore are alive with advertising. California Fitness Centers in Southeast Asia are owned by America’s 24-hour Fitness Centers. Obviously the image of “bodyland” southern California sells well around the world. However, there’s an interesting irony in that brand name for Muslim customers. The word California first appears in the eleventh-century epic poem The Song of Roland; there it literally means the “caliph’s domain”—the Caliph of Baghdad ruled the Islamic Empire then. The Spaniards who named California in the early 1500s thought they were in Asia! Moreover, the deeper meaning of the brand name is lost even on the modern Muslims who comprise 15 percent of Singapore’s current population!
Decoding errors may also occur accidentally, as was the case with Colgate-Palmolive’s selection of the brand name Cue for toothpaste. The brand name was not intended to have any symbolism; nevertheless, it was decoded by the French into a pornographic word. In some cases, the intended symbolism has no meaning to the decoder. In an ad transferred from the United States, the irony of tough-guy actor Tom Selleck standing atop a mountain with a steaming mug of Lipton tea was lost on eastern Europeans.
Errors at the receiver end of the process generally result from a combination of factors: an improper message resulting from incorrect knowledge of use patterns, poor encoding producing a meaningless message, poor media selection that does not get the message to the receiver, or inaccurate decoding by the receiver so that the message is garbled or incorrect. Even bad luck comes into play. Recall that French’s mustard was boycotted (along with French wines, fries, etc.) by Americans when the Paris government did not go along with the attack in Iraq in 2003—even though the brand name has nothing to do with the country.21
Finally, the feedback step of the communications process is important as a check on the effectiveness of the other steps. Companies that do not measure their communications efforts are likely to allow errors of source, encoding, media selection, decoding, or receiver to continue longer than necessary. In fact, a proper feedback system (ad testing) allows a company to correct errors before substantial damage occurs.
In addition to the problems inherent in the steps outlined, the effectiveness of the international communications process can be impaired by noise.
Noise
comprises all other external influences, such as competitive advertising, other sales personnel, and confusion at the receiving end, that can detract from the ultimate effectiveness of the communication. Noise is a disruptive force interfering with the process at any step and is frequently beyond the control of the sender or the receiver. As Exhibit 16.4 illustrates with the overlapping cultural contexts, noise can emanate from activity in either culture or be caused by the influences of the overlapping of the cultural contexts.
The model’s significance is that one or all steps in the process, cultural factors,22 or the marketer’s SRC can affect the ultimate success of the communication. For example, the message, encoding, media, and intended receiver can be designed perfectly, but the inability of the receiver to decode may render the final message inoperative. In developing advertising messages, the international marketer can effectively use this model as a guide to help ensure that all potential constraints and problems are considered so that the final communication received and the action taken correspond with the intent of the source.
The growing intensity of international competition, coupled with the complexity of multinational marketing, demands that the international advertiser function at the highest creative level. The creative task is made more daunting by other kinds of barriers to effective communications—legal, linguistic, cultural, media, production, and cost considerations.
Legal Constraints
Laws that control comparative advertising vary from country to country in Europe. In Germany, it is illegal to use any comparative terminology; you can be sued by a competitor if you do. Belgium and Luxembourg explicitly ban comparative advertising, whereas it is clearly authorized in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, and Portugal. The directive covering comparative advertising allows implicit comparisons that do not name competitors but bans explicit comparisons between named products. The European Commission issued several directives to harmonize the laws governing advertising. However, member states are given substantial latitude to cover issues under their jurisdiction. Many fear that if the laws are not harmonized, member states may close their borders to advertising that does not respect their national rules.
Comparative advertising is heavily regulated in other parts of the world as well. In Asia, an advertisement showing chimps choosing Pepsi over Coke was banned from most satellite television; the phrase “the leading cola” was accepted only in the Philippines. An Indian court ordered Lever to cease claiming that its New Pepsodent toothpaste was “102% better” than the leading brand. Colgate, the leading brand, was never mentioned in the advertisement, though a model was shown mouthing the word “Colgate” and the image was accompanied by a “ting” sound recognized in all Colgate ads as the ring of confidence. Banning explicit comparisons will rule out an effective advertising approach heavily used by U.S. companies at home and in other countries where it is permitted.
A variety of restrictions on advertising of specific products exist around the world. Advertising of pharmaceuticals is restricted in many countries. For example, critics in Canada complain that laws there have not been revised in 50 years and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of TV and, more recently, the Internet. Toy, tobacco, and liquor advertising is restricted in numerous countries. The French government until recently forbade TV ads for retailers, publishing, cinema, and the press.
Advertising on television is strictly controlled in many countries.23 China is relaxing some regulations24 while strengthening others. For example, recently the government began to require concrete proof of ad claims25 and banned pigs in advertising—the latter in deference to its Muslim minorities.26 While the Chinese government is doing little to regulate product placement advertisements,27 the European Union limits product placement in foreign programming but not EU-produced material.28 In Kuwait, the government-controlled TV network allows only 32 minutes of advertising per day, in the evening. Commercials are controlled to exclude superlative descriptions, indecent words, fearful or shocking shots, indecent clothing or dancing, contests, hatred or revenge shots, ethnic derision, and attacks on competition. Russian law forbids subliminal advertising, but it is still prevalent there because enforcement resources are lacking.
CROSSING BORDERS 16.2: Joe Canuck Bashes America
Standing foursquare in front of a screen flashing Canadian symbols—beavers, Ottawa’s Peace Tower, the Maple Leaf flag—an average Joe Canuck in a checked flannel shirt rips into American misperceptions about his country.
“I have a prime minister, not a president. I speak English or French, not American,” he says, voice swelling with emotion. “And I pronounce it ‘about,’ not ‘aboot.’”
“I believe in peacekeeping, not policing; diversity, not assimilation,” he goes on in the 60-second television spot as the national icons loom over his shoulder. “And that the beaver is a proud and noble animal.”
Strangely, in a country known for its aversion to the sort of rah-rah jingoism associated with its southern neighbor, this nationalistic tirade became an overnight sensation: taped and shown in bars, filling megascreens at hockey games, performed live in movie theaters.
Stranger still was the revved-up public reaction the ad evoked in this notoriously reticent land: wild cheers, stamping feet, frantic flag waving, and fists punching the air. And perhaps strangest of all, the spot was not the cunning propaganda of some ultrapatriot cabal but a commercial for Molson Canadian beer.
The irony—the director of the commercial is an American, Kevin Donovan. Perhaps they’ll make him an honorary Canuck! Finally, the Canadians’ latest cause to celebrate is the “puny” American dollar, now for the first time in years worth less than the Canadian “loonie.”
Sources: Colin Nickerson, “Anti-U.S. Beer Ad Is So Canada,” Orange County Register, April 15, 2000, pp. 29, 42; Paula Lyon Andruss, “Understanding Canada,” Marketing News, March 15, 2001, pp. 1, 11; Sam Bufalini, “Cheap Thrills South of the Border,” Globe and Mail, June 13, 2007, p. T3; The Wall Street Journal, March 15, 2008.
Some country laws against accessibility to broadcast media seem to be softening. Australia ended a ban on cable television spots, and Malaysia is considering changing the rules to allow foreign commercials to air on newly legalized satellite signals. However, with rare exceptions, all commercials on Malaysian television still must be made in Malaysia.
Companies that rely on television infomercials and television shopping are restricted by the limitations placed on the length and number of television commercials permitted when their programs are classified as advertisements. The levels of restrictions in the European Community vary widely, from no advertising on the BBC in the United Kingdom to member states that limit advertising to a maximum of 15 percent of programming daily. The Television without Frontiers directive permits stricter or more detailed rules to the broadcasters under jurisdiction of each member state. In Germany, for example, commercials must be spaced at least 20 minutes apart and total ad time may not exceed 12 minutes per hour. Commercial stations in the United Kingdom are limited to 7 minutes per hour.
Internet services are especially vulnerable as EU member states decide which area of regulation should apply to these services. Barriers to pan-European services will arise if some member states opt to apply television-broadcasting rules to the Internet while other countries apply print-media advertising rules. The good news is that the European Union is addressing the issue of regulation of activities on the Internet. Although most of the attention will be focused on domain names and Internet addresses, the European Commission does recognize that online activities will be severely hampered if subject to fragmented regulation.
Some countries have special taxes that apply to advertising, which might restrict creative freedom in media selection. The tax structure in Austria best illustrates how advertising taxation can distort media choice by changing the cost ratios of various media: Federal states, with the exception of Bergenland and Tyrol, tax ad insertions at 10 percent; states and municipalities tax posters at 10 to 30 percent. Radio advertising carries a 10 percent tax, except in Tyrol, where it is 20 percent. Salzburg, Steiermark, Karnten, and Voralbert impose no tax. There is a uniform tax of 10 percent throughout the country on television ads. Cinema advertising has a 10 percent tax in Vienna, 20 percent in Bergenland, and 30 percent in Steiermark. There is no cinema tax in the other federal states.
Linguistic Limitations
Language is one of the major barriers to effective communication through advertising.29 The problem involves different languages of different countries, different languages30 or dialects within one country, and the subtler problems of linguistic nuance, argument style,31 vernacular, and even accent. Indeed, recently an Irish accent was voted “sexiest” in Britain and Ireland, beating the competition from the Scots, Welsh, Geordies, Brummies, West Country, and “posh English” contenders.32 For many countries language is a matter of cultural pride and preservation—France is the best example, of course.
Incautious handling of language has created problems in all countries.33 Some examples suffice. Chrysler Corporation was nearly laughed out of Spain when it translated its U.S. theme that advertised “Dart Is Power.” To the Spanish, the phrase implied that buyers sought but lacked sexual vigor. The Bacardi Company concocted a fruity bitters with a made-up name, Pavane, suggestive of French chic. Bacardi wanted to sell the drink in Germany, but Pavane is perilously close to pavian, which means “baboon.” A company marketing tomato paste in the Middle East found that in Arabic the phrase “tomato paste” translates as “tomato glue.” In Spanish-speaking countries, you have to be careful of words that have different meanings in the different countries. The word ball translates in Spanish as bola, which means ball in one country, revolution in another, a lie or fabrication in another, and an obscenity in yet another.
Tropicana brand orange juice was advertised as jugo de China in Puerto Rico, but when transported to Miami’s Cuban community, it failed. To the Puerto Rican, China translated into orange, but to the Cuban it was China the country—and the Cubans were not in the market for Chinese juice. One Middle East advertisement featured an automobile’s new suspension system, which, in translation, said the car was “suspended from the ceiling.” Since there are at least 30 dialects among Arab countries, there is ample room for error. What may appear as the most obvious translation can come out wrong. For example, “a whole new range of products” in a German advertisement came out as “a whole new stove of products.”
Language raises innumerable barriers that impede effective, idiomatic translation and thereby hamper communication. This barrier is especially apparent in advertising materials and on the Internet.34 Abstraction, terse writing, and word economy, the most effective tools of the advertiser, pose problems for translators. Communication is impeded by the great diversity of cultural heritage and education that exists within countries and that causes varying interpretations of even single sentences and simple concepts. Some companies have tried to solve the translation problem by hiring foreign translators who live in the United States. This option often is not satisfactory because both the language and the translator change, so the expatriate in the United States is out of touch after a few years. Everyday words have different meanings in different cultures. Even pronunciation causes problems: Wrigley had trouble selling its Spearmint gum in Germany until it changed the spelling to Speermint.
The “true ting” in Jamaica is a grapefruit-flavored soft drink. The name brand is, of course, a take off on “the real thing” advertising of Coca-Cola some decades ago. “Ting” is obviously a Creole version of “thing” for Jamaicans. Perhaps the best billboards ever are the giant bulls posted on hillsides around rural Spain. They were originally meant to advertise Osborne Brandy, but they have evolved into a national symbol. Not even Coca-Cola can make that strong a claim. Finally, GE joined with the Chinese government in promoting a green 2008 Olympics. Ironically, many folks around the world see outdoor advertising itself as a kind of pollution! (right: AP Photo/Dennis Doyle/File; below right: Courtesy of GE)
In addition to translation challenges, low literacy in many countries seriously impedes communications and calls for greater creativity and use of verbal media. Multiple languages within a country or advertising area pose another problem for the advertiser. Even a tiny country such as Switzerland has four separate languages. The melting-pot character of the Israeli population accounts for some 50 languages. A Jerusalem commentator says that even though Hebrew “has become a negotiable instrument of daily speech, this has yet to be converted into advertising idiom.” Advertising communications must be perfect, and linguistic differences at all levels cause problems. In-country testing with the target consumer group is the only way to avoid such problems.
Cultural Diversity
The problems associated with communicating to people in diverse cultures present one of the great creative challenges in advertising.35 One advertising executive puts it bluntly: “International advertising is almost uniformly dreadful mostly because people don’t understand language and culture.” Communication is more difficult because cultural factors largely determine the way various phenomena are perceived.36 If the perceptual framework is different, perception of the message itself differs.37
Existing perceptions based on tradition and heritages often render advertising campaigns ineffective or worse. For example, marketing researchers in Hong Kong found that cheese is associated with Yeung-Yen (foreigners) and thus rejected by some Chinese. Toyota introduced the Prado SUV in China only to learn that the name sounded like the Chinese word for “rule by force.” This name reminded some Chinese of the 1937 invasion by Japan—not a nice memory at all.38
Procter & Gamble’s initial advertisement for Pampers brand diapers failed because of cultural differences between the United States and Japan. A U.S. commercial that showed an animated stork delivering Pampers diapers to homes was dubbed into Japanese with the U.S. package replaced by the Japanese package and put on the air. To P&G’s dismay, the advertisement failed to build the market. Some belated consumer research revealed that consumers were confused about why this bird was delivering disposable diapers. According to Japanese folklore, giant peaches that float on the river bring babies to deserving parents, not storks.
In addition to concerns with differences among nations, advertisers find that subcultures within a country require attention as well. People in Hong Kong have 10 different patterns of breakfast eating. The youth of a country almost always constitute a different consuming culture from the older people, and urban dwellers differ significantly from rural dwellers. Besides these differences, there is the problem of changing traditions. In all countries, people of all ages, urban or rural, cling to their heritage to a certain degree but are willing to change some areas of behavior. Indeed, due to the early efforts of Nestlé’s and the most recent expansion by Starbucks, in tea-drinking Japan, coffee has become the fashionable beverage for younger people and urban dwellers who like to think of themselves as cosmopolitan and sophisticated.
Media Limitations
Media are discussed at length later, so here we note only that limitations on creative strategy imposed by media may diminish the role of advertising in the promotional program and may force marketers to emphasize other elements of the promotional mix. A marketer’s creativity is certainly challenged when a television commercial is limited to 10 showings a year with no two exposures closer than 10 days, as is the case in Italy. Creative advertisers in some countries have even developed their own media for overcoming media limitations. In some African countries, advertisers run boats up and down the rivers playing popular music and broadcasting commercials into rural areas as they travel.
Production and Cost Limitations
Creativity is especially important when a budget is small or where there are severe production limitations, such as poor-quality printing and a lack of high-grade paper. For example, the poor quality of high-circulation glossy magazines and other quality publications in eastern Europe has caused Colgate-Palmolive to depart from its customary heavy use of print media in the West for other media. Newsprint is of such low quality in China that a color ad used by Kodak in the West is not an option. Kodak’s solution has been to print a single-sheet color insert as a newspaper supplement.
CROSSING BORDERS 16.3: Objections to Indian Ad Not Taken Lightly
A financially strapped father laments his fate, saying, “Kaash agar mera beta hota” (“If I only had a son”), while his dark-skinned, plain-Jane daughter looks on, helpless and demoralized because she cannot bear the financial responsibility of her family. Fast-forward and plain Jane has been transformed into a gorgeous, light-skinned woman through the use of a “fairness cream.” Now clad in a miniskirt, the woman is a successful flight attendant and can take her father to dine at a five-star hotel. She’s happy and so is her father.
All’s well that end’s well—except not so for Hindustan Lever Ltd. (HLL). The company, a subsidiary of Unilever, launched this television campaign to promote its Fair & Lovely fairness cream in India. It withdrew the campaign two months later amid severe criticism for its portrayal of women. The incident underscores the changing social mores in India and highlights tensions among the government, consumer groups, and industry regulatory agencies.
While tanning is the rage in Western countries, skin lightening treatments have been historically popular in Asia. The Japanese market for such products is estimated to be around $6 billion and in India about $150 million.
It may be safe for the skin, but not for society, says the All India Women’s Democratic Association. Three things were objectionable about the campaign to the group. It was racist, it promoted preferences for sons, and it was insulting to working women. A government ministry found the ads to be in violation of the Cable and Television Act of 1995, which in part forbids ads that “deride any race, caste, color, creed, and nationality.” Industry regulators agreed and pressured the company to stop airing the ad. The company admitted no wrong doing, but complied.
Sources: Arundhati Parmar, “Objections to Indian Ad Not Taken Lightly,” Marketing News, June 9, 2003, pp. 4–5; Heather Timmons, “Telling India’s Modern Women They Have Power, Even over Their Skin Tone,” The New York Times, May 30, 2007, p. C5.
The necessity for low-cost reproduction in small markets poses another problem in many countries. For example, hand-painted billboards must be used instead of printed sheets because the limited number of billboards does not warrant the production of printed sheets. In Egypt, static-filled television and poor-quality billboards have led companies such as Coca-Cola and Nestlé to place their advertisements on the sails of feluccas, boats that sail along the Nile. Feluccas, with their triangle sails, have been used to transport goods since the time of the pharaohs and serve as an effective alternative to attract attention to company names and logos.
Media Planning and Analysis

Tactical Considerations
Although nearly every sizable nation essentially has the same kinds of media, a number of specific considerations, problems, and differences are encountered from one nation to another. In international advertising, an advertiser must consider the availability, cost, coverage, and appropriateness of the media. And the constant competitive churn among these media makes for a tricky and dynamic landscape for making decisions.39 For example, billboard ads next to highways cannot include paragraphs of text. Moreover, recent research has demonstrated that media effectiveness varies across cultures and product types. Local variations and lack of market data require added attention. Major multinationals are beginning to recognize the importance of planning communications channels as media companies continue to rationalize and evolve. Indeed, media giants such as Disney and Time Warner cover an increasingly broad spectrum of the electronic media, necessitating that MNCs rethink their relationships with media service providers.
Imagine the ingenuity required of advertisers confronted with these situations:
• In Brazil, TV commercials are sandwiched together in a string of 10 to 50 commercials within one station break.
• National coverage in many countries means using as many as 40 to 50 different media.
• Specialized media reach small segments of the market only. In the Netherlands, there are Catholic, Protestant, socialist, neutral, and other specialized broadcasting systems.
• In Germany, TV scheduling for an entire year must be arranged by August 30 of the preceding year, with no guarantee that commercials intended for summer viewing will not be run in the middle of winter.
• In Vietnam, advertising in newspapers and magazines is limited to 10 percent of space and to 5 percent of time, or three minutes an hour, on radio and TV.
Availability.
One of the contrasts of international advertising is that some countries have too few advertising media and others have too many. In some countries, certain advertising media are forbidden by government edict to accept some advertising materials. Such restrictions are most prevalent in radio and television broadcasting. In many countries, there are too few magazines and newspapers to run all the advertising offered to them. Conversely, some nations segment the market with so many newspapers that the advertiser cannot gain effective coverage at a reasonable cost. One head of an Italian advertising agency commented about his country: “One fundamental rule. You cannot buy what you want.”
In China the only national TV station, CCTV, has one channel that must be aired by the country’s 27 provincial/municipal stations. Recently CCTV auctioned off the most popular break between the early evening news and weather; a secured year-long, daily five-second billboard ad in this break went for $38.5 million. For this price, advertisers are assured of good coverage—more than 70 percent of households have TV sets. One of the other options for advertisers is with the 2,828 TV stations that provide only local coverage.
Cost.
Media prices are susceptible to negotiation in most countries. Agency space discounts are often split with the client to bring down the cost of media. The advertiser may find that the cost of reaching a prospect through advertising depends on the agent’s bargaining ability. The per contract cost varies widely from country to country. One study showed that the cost of reaching 1,000 readers in 11 different European countries ranged from $1.58 in Belgium to $5.91 in Italy; in women’s service magazines, the page cost per 1,000 circulation ranged from $2.51 in Denmark to $10.87 in Germany. Shortages of advertising time on commercial television in some markets have caused substantial price increases. In Britain, prices escalate on a bidding system. They do not have fixed rate cards; instead, there is a preempt system in which advertisers willing to pay a higher rate can bump already-scheduled spots.
Coverage.
Closely akin to the cost dilemma is the problem of coverage. Two points are particularly important: One relates to the difficulty of reaching certain sectors of the population with advertising and the other to the lack of information about coverage. In many world marketplaces, a wide variety of media must be used to reach the majority of the markets. In some countries, large numbers of separate media have divided markets into uneconomical advertising segments. With some exceptions, a majority of the population of less developed countries cannot be reached readily through the traditional mass medium of advertising. In India, video vans are used to reach India’s rural population with 30-minute infomercials extolling the virtues of a product. Consumer goods companies deploy vans year-round except in the monsoon season. Colgate hires 85 vans at a time and sends them to villages that research has shown to be promising.
Because of the lack of adequate coverage by any single medium in eastern European countries, companies must resort to a multimedia approach. In the Czech Republic, for example, TV advertising rates are high, and the lack of available prime-time spots has forced companies to use billboard advertising. In Slovenia the availability of adequate media is such a problem that companies resort to some unique approaches to get their messages out. For example, in the summer, lasers are used to project images onto clouds above major cities. Vehicle advertising includes cement-mixers, where Kodak ads have appeared. On the positive side, crime is so low that products can be displayed in freestanding glass cabinets on sidewalks; Bosch Siemens (Germany) and Kodak have both used this method.
Lack of Market Data.
Verification of circulation or coverage figures is a difficult task. Even though many countries have organizations similar to the Audit Bureau of Circulation in the United States, accurate circulation and audience data are not assured. For example, the president of the Mexican National Advertisers Association charged that newspaper circulation figures are grossly exaggerated. He suggested that as a rule, agencies should divide these figures in two and take the result with a grain of salt. The situation in China is no better; surveys of habits and market penetration are available only for the cities of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Radio and television audiences are always difficult to measure, but at least in most countries, geographic coverage is known. Research data are becoming more reliable as advertisers and agencies demand better quality data.
Even where advertising coverage can be measured with some accuracy, there are questions about the composition of the market reached. Lack of available market data seems to characterize most international markets; advertisers need information on income, age, and geographic distribution, but such basic data seem chronically elusive except in the largest markets. Even the attractiveness of global television (satellite broadcasts) is diminished somewhat because of the lack of media research available.
An attempt to evaluate specific characteristics of each medium is beyond the scope of this discussion. Furthermore, such information would quickly become outdated because of the rapid changes in the international advertising media field. It may be interesting, however, to examine some of the unique international characteristics of various advertising media. In most instances, the major implications of each variation may be discerned from the data presented.
Newspapers.
The newspaper industry is suffering from lack of competition in some countries and choking because of it in others. Most U.S. cities have just one or two major daily newspapers, but in many countries, there are so many newspapers that an advertiser has trouble achieving even partial market coverage. Uruguay, population 3 million, has 21 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 553,000. Turkey has 380 newspapers, and an advertiser must consider the political position of each newspaper so that the product’s reputation is not harmed through affiliation with unpopular positions. Japan has only five national daily newspapers, and the complications of producing a Japanese-language newspaper are such that they each contain just 16 to 20 pages. Connections are necessary to buy advertising space; Asahi, Japan’s largest newspaper, has been known to turn down over a million dollars a month in advertising revenue.
In many countries, there is a long time lag before an advertisement can be run in a newspaper. In India and Indonesia, paper shortages delay publication of ads for up to six months. Furthermore, because of equipment limitations, most newspapers cannot be made larger to accommodate the increase in advertising demand.
Separation between editorial and advertising content in newspapers provides another basis for contrast on the international scene. In some countries, it is possible to buy editorial space for advertising and promotional purposes; the news columns are for sale to anyone who has the price. Because there is no indication that the space is paid for, it is impossible to tell exactly how much advertising appears in a given newspaper.
Magazines.
The use of foreign national consumer magazines by international advertisers has been notably low for many reasons. Few magazines have a large circulation or provide dependable circulation figures. Technical magazines are used rather extensively to promote export goods, but as with newspapers, paper shortages cause placement problems. Media planners are often faced with the largest magazines accepting up to twice as many advertisements as they have space to run them in—then the magazines decide what advertisements will go in just before going to press by means of a raffle.
CROSSING BORDERS 16.4: Advertising Themes that Work in Japan, Including a Polite Duck
Respect for tradition: Mercedes ads stress that it was the first to manufacture passenger cars.
Mutual dependence: Shiseido ads emphasize the partnership (with beauty consultants) involved in achieving beauty.
Harmony with nature: Toyotas are shown in front of Mt. Fuji.
Use of seasons: Commercials are often set in and products are often used in specific seasons only.
Newness and evolution: Products are shown to evolve from the current environment slowly.
Distinctive use of celebrities, including gaijin (foreigners): A recent study showed that 63 percent of all Japanese commercials featured hired celebrities.
Aging of society: Seniors are featured often.
Changing families: The changing role of fathers—more time spent at home—is a common theme.
Generation gaps and individualism: Younger characters are shown as more individualistic.
Self-effacing humor: A dented Pepsi can was used in an ad to demonstrate its deference to more popular Coke.
Polite ducks: The AFLAC duck is going to Japan but with a softer quack. Instead of the American version’s abrasive quack, the Japanese actor portrays the duck with a more soothing tone. “The Japanese culture does not like being yelled at,” says an AFLAC spokesperson. About 70 percent of the firm’s international revenues come from Japan, or some $8 billion. Although this campaign is the first to be shot specifically for Japan, the Japanese have met the duck before. The company, now Japan’s largest insurer in terms of individual policies, has also used dubbed voices of American ads, including the loud “quacker.”
Sources: George Fields, Hotaka Katahira, and Jerry Wind, Leveraging Japan, Marketing to the New Asia (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000); “ALFAC Tames Its Duck for Japanese Market,” Los Angeles Times, May 13, 2003, p. C7; Lavonne Kuykendall, “AFLAC Japan Looks to Fly Again,” The Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2007, p. B3F.
Such local practices may be key factors favoring the growth of so-called international media that attempt to serve many nations. Increasingly, U.S. publications are publishing overseas editions. Reader’s Digest International has added a new Russian-language edition to its more than 20 other language editions. Other American print media available in international editions range from Playboy to Scientific American and even include the National Enquirer, recently introduced to the United Kingdom. Advertisers have three new magazines through which to reach women in China: Hachette Filipachi Presse, the French publisher, is expanding Chinese-language editions of Elle, a fashion magazine; Woman’s Day is aimed at China’s “busy modern” woman; and L’Evénement Sportif is a sports magazine. These media offer alternatives for multinationals as well as for local advertisers.
Radio and Television.
Possibly because of their inherent entertainment value, radio and television have become major communications media in almost all nations. Now high-definition television (HDTV) appears to be starting to take off worldwide as well. In China, virtually all homes in major cities have a television, and most adults view television and listen to radio daily. Radio has been relegated to a subordinate position in the media race in countries where television facilities are well developed. In many countries, however, radio is a particularly important and vital advertising medium when it is the only one reaching large segments of the population.
Television and radio advertising availability varies between countries. Three patterns are discernible: competitive commercial broadcasting, commercial monopolies, and noncommercial broadcasting. Countries with free competitive commercial radio and television normally encourage competition and have minimal broadcast regulations. Elsewhere, local or national monopolies are granted by the government, and individual stations or networks may then accept radio or TV commercials according to rules established by the government. In some countries, commercial monopolies may accept all the advertising they wish; in others, only spot advertising is permissible, and programs may not be sponsored. Live commercials are not permitted in some countries; in still others, commercial stations must compete for audiences against the government’s noncommercial broadcasting network.
Some countries do not permit any commercial radio or television, but several of the traditional noncommercial countries have changed their policies in recent years because television production is so expensive. Until recently, France limited commercials to a daily total of 18 minutes but now has extended the time limit to 12 minutes per hour per TV channel. South Korea has two television companies, both government owned, which broadcast only a few hours a day. They do not broadcast from midnight to 6:00 a.m, and they usually cannot broadcast between 10:00 a.m. and 5:30 p.m. on weekdays. Commercials are limited to 8 percent of airtime and shown in clusters at the beginning and end of programs. One advertiser remarked, “We are forced to buy what we don’t want to buy just to get on.”
Lack of reliable audience data is another major problem in international marketing via radio and television. Measurement of radio and television audiences is always a precarious business, even with highly developed techniques. In most countries, either audience size is not audited or the existing auditing associations are ineffective. Despite the paucity of audience data, many advertisers use radio and television extensively. Advertisers justify their inclusion in the media schedule with the inherent logic favoring the use of these media or defend their use on the basis of sales results.
Satellite and Cable TV.
Of increasing importance in TV advertising is the growth and development of satellite TV broadcasting. Sky Channel, a United Kingdom–based commercial satellite television station, beams its programs and advertising into most of Europe to cable TV subscribers. The technology that permits households to receive broadcasts directly from the satellite via a dish the size of a dinner plate costing about $350 is adding greater coverage and the ability to reach all of Europe with a single message. The expansion of TV coverage will challenge the creativity of advertisers and put greater emphasis on global standardized messages. For a comparison of penetration rates by cable TV, computers, and the Internet in the several countries, see Exhibit 16.5.
Exhibit 16.5: Media Penetration in Selected Countries (per 1,000 persons)

Advertisers and governments are both concerned about the impact of satellite TV. Governments are concerned because they fear further loss of control over their airwaves and the spread of “American cultural imperialism.” European television programming includes such U.S. shows as The OC. Wheel of Fortune is the most popular foreign show in the United Kingdom and France, where both the U.S. and French versions are shown. American imports are so popular in France and Germany that officials fear lowbrow U.S. game shows, sitcoms, and soap operas will crush domestic producers. This battle has even reached political levels associated with differences in worldviews represented in the news. The government of France invested in developing, not surprisingly, a French-language “CNN” called France 24, but has stopped subsidizing an English-language version.40 Al-Jazeera, initially subsidized by Qatar government loans, is currently struggling to break even. Nevertheless, it is the now widely recognized Arabic “CNN” and is commensurately influential in the Middle East.
Parts of Asia and Latin America receive TV broadcasts from satellite television networks. Univision and Televisa are two Latin American satellite television networks broadcasting via a series of affiliate stations in each country to most of the Spanish-speaking world, as well as the United States. Sabado Gigante, a popular Spanish-language program broadcast by Univision, is seen by tens of millions of viewers in 16 countries. Star TV, a new pan-Asian satellite television network, has a potential audience of 2.7 billion people living in 38 countries from Egypt through India to Japan, and from Russia to Indonesia. Star TV was the first to broadcast across Asia but was quickly joined by ESPN and CNN. The first Asian 24-hour all-sports channel was followed by MTV Asia and a Mandarin Chinese–language channel that delivers dramas, comedies, movies, and financial news aimed at the millions of overseas Chinese living throughout Asia. Programs are delivered through cable networks but can be received through private satellite dishes.
Given the ubiquitous Guinness advertising in Dublin, it’s not surprising that Irish livers need assurance. Ireland is behind only the Czech Republic when it comes to per capita consumption of beer. Actually, Royal Liver Assurance is a British pension/insurance company with offices in Dublin (it was established in the 1850s as the Liverpool Liver Burial Society). “Hurling” is a rather brutal form of field hockey popular in Ireland. The Irish government recognizes the causal effects of advertising on consumption—beer ads are not allowed on radio or TV before sports programs and may not be shown more than once per night on any one channel. See http://www.eurocare.org for more on the consumption of alcohol in Ireland and other European countries.
One of the drawbacks of satellites is also their strength, that is, their ability to span a wide geographical region covering many different country markets. That means a single message is broadcast throughout a wide area. This span may not be desirable for some products; with cultural differences in language, preferences, and so on, a single message may not be as effective. PVI (Princeton Video Imaging) is an innovation that will make regional advertising in diverse cultures easier than it presently is when using cable or satellite television. PVI allows ESPN, which offers this service, to fill visual real estate—blank walls, streets, stadium sidings—with computer-generated visuals that look like they belong in the scene. For instance, if you are watching the “street luge” during ESPN’s X-Games, you will see the racers appear to pass a billboard advertising Adidas shoes that really is not there. That billboard can say one thing in Holland and quite another in Cameroon. And if you are watching in Portland, Oregon, where Adidas might not advertise, you will see the scene as it really appears—without the billboard. These commercials can play in different languages, in different countries, and even under different brand names.
Most satellite technology involves some government regulation. Singapore, Taiwan, and Malaysia prohibit selling satellite dishes, and the Japanese government prevents domestic cable companies from rebroadcasting from foreign satellites. Such restrictions seldom work for long, however. In Taiwan, an estimated 1.5 million dishes are in use, and numerous illicit cable operators are in business. Through one technology or another, Asian households will be open to the same kind of viewing choice Americans have grown accustomed to and the advertising that it brings with it.
Direct Mail.
Direct mail is a viable medium in an increasing number of countries. It is especially important when other media are not available. As is often the case in international marketing, even such a fundamental medium is subject to some odd and novel quirks. For example, in Chile, direct mail is virtually eliminated as an effective medium because the sender pays only part of the mailing fee; the letter carrier must collect additional postage for every item delivered. Obviously, advertisers cannot afford to alienate customers by forcing them to pay for unsolicited advertisements. Despite some limitations with direct mail, many companies have found it a meaningful way to reach their markets. The Reader’s Digest Association has used direct mail advertising in Mexico to successfully market its magazines.
In Southeast Asian markets, where print media are scarce, direct mail is considered one of the most effective ways to reach those responsible for making industrial goods purchases, even though accurate mailing lists are a problem in Asia as well as in other parts of the world. In fact, some companies build their own databases for direct mail. Industrial advertisers are heavy mail users and rely on catalogs and sales sheets to generate large volumes of international business. Even in Japan, where media availability is not a problem, direct mail is successfully used by marketers such as Nestlé Japan and Dell Computer. To promote its Buitoni fresh-chilled pasta, Nestlé is using a 12-page color direct mail booklet of recipes, including Japanese-style versions of Italian favorites.
In Russia, the volume of direct mail has gone from just over 150,000 letters per month to over 500,000 per month in one year. Although small by U.S. standards, the response rate to direct mailings is as high as 10 to 20 percent, compared with only 3 to 4 percent or less in the United States. One suggestion as to why it works so well is that Russians are flattered by the attention—needless to say, that will probably change as use of the medium grows.
The Internet.
Although still evolving, the Internet has emerged as a viable medium for advertising and should be included as one of the media in a company’s possible media mix. Its use in business-to-business communications and promotion via catalogs and product descriptions is rapidly gaining in popularity.41 Because a large number of businesses have access to the Internet, the Internet can reach a large portion of the business-to-business market.
Although limited in its penetration of households globally, the Internet is being used by a growing number of companies as an advertising medium for consumer goods. Many consumer goods companies have e-stores, and others use the Internet as an advertising medium to stimulate sales in retail outlets. Waterford Crystal of Ireland set up its Web site specifically to drive store traffic. The aim is to promote its products and attract people into stores that sell Waterford crystal. Sites list and display almost the entire catalog of the Waterford collection, while stores like Bloomingdale’s that stock Waterford support the promotional effort by also advertising on their Web sites.
For consumer products, the major limitation of the Internet is coverage (see Exhibit 16.5). In the United States, growing numbers of households have access to a computer, but there are fewer in other countries. However, the growing number of Internet households accessible outside the United States generally constitutes a younger, better-educated market segment with higher-than-average incomes. For many companies, this group is an important market niche. Furthermore, this limitation is only temporary as new technology allows access to the Internet via television and as lower prices for personal computers expand the household base. Exhibit 16.6 gives you some idea of the distribution of Web site visitors in three major markets. Notice the American brand names included in the lists: 7 for France, 8 for Germany, and 4 for Japan. You also might notice that most of these examples are local language–dedicated Web sites, such as Google.fr, MSN.de, and Yahoo. co.jp. Interestingly, Germans are looking at both MSN.de and MSN.com. The most visited Web sites in the United States during the same month were Yahoo, Google, MSN, AOL, eBay, Microsoft, Live, MySpace, MapQuest, and Hotmail, in that order.
Exhibit 16.6: Top Ten Web Sites in Three Countries (visitors per month)

As the Internet continues to grow and countries begin to assert control over what is now a medium with few restrictions, increasing limitations will be set. Beyond the control of undesirable information, issues such as pay-per-view,42 taxes, unfair competition, import duties, and privacy are being addressed all over the world. In Australia, local retailers are calling for changes in laws because of the loss of trade to the Internet; under current law, Internet purchases do not carry regular import duties. The Internet industry is lobbying for a global understanding on regulation to avoid a crazy quilt of confusing and contradictory rules.
Another limitation that needs to be addressed soon is the competition for Web surfers. The sheer proliferation of the number of Web sites makes it increasingly difficult for a customer to stumble across a particular page. Search engines have now become crucial directors of Web surfers’ attention. Also, serious Internet advertisers or e-marketers will have to be more effective in communicating the existence of their Internet sites via other advertising media. Some companies are coupling their traditional television spots with a Web site; IBM, Swatch watches, AT&T, and Samsung electronics are among those going for a one–two punch of on-air and online presences. Television spots raise brand awareness of a product regionally and promote the company’s Web site. In addition, a company can buy ad banners on the Web that will lead enthusiastic consumers to the company’s site, which also promotes the product. Some TV networks offer a package deal: a TV spot and ad banners on the network’s Web site. For example, the EBN (European Business News) channel offers a cross-media program that includes TV spots and the advertiser’s ad banner on the EB Interactive page for $15,000 a quarter.
The online advertising business itself—for example, a banner ad for Amazon.com placed on The Wall Street Journal Web site—has come into its own. The industry is now conducting international festivals annually in Cannes, France. In 2005 more than $8 billion was spent worldwide on online ads; continued dramatic growth is forecasted.43 Of course, the creative possibilities (with global reach, hyperlinks, and such) are endless.
The New Social Media.
Word-of-mouth (WOM) advertising and peer recommendations have always been key influencers of brand choice, but the power of the Internet has changed the pace and reach of WOM. Social media (such as social networking, blogs, virtual worlds, and video sharing) can be powerful marketing tools, but marketers are just beginning to loosen control and let consumers interact with brands on their own terms. Consumer-generated content is having an impact on brands (both positive and negative), and new media are on the agendas of marketers of all products, not just those targeted at young people. Consumers will create content about brands whether the marketers of those brands like it or not. Thus, it is vital that marketers follow, and participate in, the conversations consumers are having online.
The Internet is not delineated by national boundaries. Rather, consumers from many different countries can and do interact online. We are just beginning to understand the potential uses and pitfalls of this medium and the characteristics of its users. One recent study44 distinguishes between social network uses in the United States and a sample from abroad (that is, an aggregate of 11 countries: Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, Mexico, Russia, South Korea, and the United Kingdom). For the purposes of the study, the users consisted of consumers who had visited at least one social networking Web site, such as MySpace, Facebook, Cyworld, and/or Mixi.
More than half the Americans in the sample had watched TV shows or video streams online. In addition, the Americans were significantly more likely to download TV programs, burn or copy a movie or TV show, and download a feature-length film. The Americans also owned significantly more technology than their international counterparts, and both samples owned more technology than those who had never visited a social networking site. More than half of the Americans had used their mobile devices to send or receive SMS (short message service) text and e-mails, browse the Internet for news and information, and receive digital images (See Exhibit 16.7). Although the international users exhibited similar behaviors, their mobile devices were richer with features. For example, international users are significantly more likely to have MP3s on their mobile devices than those in the United States.
Exhibit 16.7: Social Networking Goes Mobile (% of respondents)

Other Media.
Restrictions on traditional media or their availability cause advertisers to call on lesser media to solve particular local-country problems. The cinema is an important medium in many countries, as are billboards and other forms of outside advertising. Billboards are especially useful in countries with high illiteracy rates. Hong Kong is clearly the neon capital of the world, with Tokyo’s Ginza and New York’s Times Square running close seconds. Indeed, perhaps the most interesting “billboard” was the Pizza Hut logo that appeared on the side of a Russian Proton rocket launched to carry parts of the international space station into orbit. Can extraterrestrials read? Do they like pizza?
In Haiti, sound trucks equipped with powerful loudspeakers provide an effective and widespread advertising medium. Private contractors own the equipment and sell advertising space, much as a radio station would. This medium overcomes the problems of illiteracy, lack of radio and television set ownership, and limited print media circulation. In Ukraine, where the postal service is unreliable, businesses have found that the most effective form of direct business-to-business advertising is direct faxing.
Procter & Gamble Experiments with Social Media
P&G was one of the first companies to have their virtual world headquarters on an island in Second Life, the Web-based virtual world where users interact via avatars. Sergio dos Santos, Global Hair Care—Digital Marketing Manager and Gerry Tseng, Digital Marketing Innovation were involved in P&G’s Second Life marketing effort. They explain:
The corporate team sponsored a contest to find the right brand interested in co-creating a Second Life experiment. An open-invite P&G event was hosted in the form of a 2-hour “Second Life University” event to learn about the medium’s capabilities, followed by a call-to-action for interested brands to participate in a contest to win co-sponsorship funding. It received seventy-one event attendees, ten contest entries, four close-scoring finalists, and the selection of one winner: Wella Shockwaves brand in Europe.
Shockwaves, with their tag line of “Style—Attract—Play” targets both young men and women with hair styling products such as gel, spray, mousse, and wax. They tested their hypothesis that branded functionality, which brought their “play” equity to life, would be receptive to and used by avatars. As an extension to their TV campaign, the brand created a virtual waterfight utility that allowed avatars to throw water balloons at each other. As incentive, a 3-wave contest was held to give fans the opportunity to team up and compete to win L$1 million (Linden dollars, the basic currency of Second Life) in each round. Each wave involved points for thrown water balloons and accumulated medallions from scavenger hunts, and allowed some time for Shockwaves to learn and adjust accordingly for the next wave.
This image was posted within the Second Life world to enroll participants in the Water Fight contest. It was not posted on other Web sites or used to advertise the contest to anyone outside of Second Life.
While Shockwaves products were only sold in Western and Eastern Europe at the time, P&G found that people from the United States and elsewhere wanted to participate in the “Shockwaves Water Fight” with their avatars. Initially, P&G thought about excluding non-Europeans, but ultimately decided to allow all avatars to participate. While these consumers would be unable to purchase Shockwaves products, the brand elected to study the global nature and behaviors of Second Life.
P&G learned the following from the Second Life execution:
• Second Life is not a reach mechanism: Second Life is a small pond versus today’s traditional Internet channels, best suited for experimentation, research, and press release in the areas of community and socialization. If a brand is simply interested in reaching as many eyeballs as possible; perhaps a well-designed flash site with provocative content on an Internet site would better suffice as reach in SL is more difficult to do. Due to today’s Second Life learning curve for average users, one can expect avatars there to be generally more creative and competitive, perhaps ideal for a brand looking for co-contributors and creative partners. SL proves to be a thriving world for a specific consumer segment, the “critics” and “creators,” who are producers themselves. In the end, match your needs to each platform’s focus/strength. Perhaps the use of a more globally recognized brand with increased consumer awareness may have also further driven adoption/trial in this experiment.
• Fun, simple & socialization is more important: While a contest was employed as an incentive to trial, we now hypothesize that fun, simple & socialization are more important to SL avatars than prizes & complexity. Celebrity status of their avatars may also be more important than monetary gain as well. This is also supported by other learning from the development agency’s SL experiments to date. We learned that in making the game more complex, we risk lower adoption/trial of the execution as avatars may have been intimidated by the process (i.e., game rules and prize money distribution across countries and winning team avatars, interpretation of traditional contest-required legal guidelines into virtual worlds).
• Community managers and media support are key: The experiment did not receive media support; however, we utilized a community manager from the development agency who brought the contest to life via ongoing communications and in-world activities throughout all 3 waves. Word of Mouth was the primary driver to promote the contest, which would have been enhanced with media support if taken beyond experimental expectations. Word of Mouth works in SL but not as well as traditional Internet mechanisms. Should Second Life be used in a future brand execution for its unique strengths, the use of appropriate media support should compensate and increase its trial.
• Keep experiment budgets low: Keeping the experiment costs low through simple design executions allows ongoing tests in new digital channels with less ROI risk and more learning opportunities. We learned that most of our experiment’s cost went to making the game’s complex elements but perhaps may have been better saved in creating a fun and simple build for avatars to play with each other. This particular experiment realized more accountability to ROI than learning as it approached spending levels close to other digital tools such as online advertising and sampling.
• Maintain appropriate guidelines and principles: Expect that consumers will find loopholes and plan to embrace/adjust for them. Our experiment’s game rule complexity within each wave’s contest resulted in unexpected cheating allegations within waves 2 & 3. It was interesting to see how competitively close wave 3 became as we apologized for a discovered loophole in wave 2, held to the principle that we’d stay within our predefined game rules, and encouraged players to be more competitive for wave 3. This loophole could have been better prevented through the use of agency experts proficient in traditional contest rules and regulations. However, for this purpose, the Shockwaves brand authorized its bypass due to our need to learn/experiment the application of traditional rules into virtual worlds. Eliminating the contest component would have also avoided this scenario.
• Passionate consumers may not be vocal outside SL: While we received many messages in-world, not everyone wanted to be heard publicly via our external non-SL blogs as we encouraged them to do. This may have been due to the barrier of having them leave SL to perform an action elsewhere despite our promise to act on it in future potential executions if they did.
• Online conversations assisted in trial: The experiment generated over 400 blog posts around the world, most of them linked or driving traffic to Shockwaves Second Life’s Web site, which represented over 104,000 unique visitors in our Web site during the period of the experiment (September through November ‘07) without having any additional on-line advertising. This “popularity” positioned our Web site into 1st place on Google’s results page when searching for “shockwaves water fight.”
The Shockwaves products shown are available in 15 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. See www.shockwaves.com for more details.
Source: Gerry Tseng, Digital Marketing Innovation for P&G and Sergio dos Santos, Global Hair Care—Digital Marketing Manager.
Two novel media are shown here: (1) Not only do the Russians sell space for space tourists on their rockets; they also sell advertising space! (2) The Japanese beverage company Suntory promotes its products with “Monitor Man” during a football match at National Stadium. “Monitor Man” puts on an LCD display, showing ads for Pepsi and other products, and walks around the stadium. The job requires some muscle, as the equipment weighs about 15 pounds. All this effort is perhaps purposely reminiscent of the Simpson’s “Duff Man.” Ohhh yaaaa! (left: AP/Wide World Photos; right: © Tatsuyuki Tayama/Fujifotos/The Image Works)
In Spain, a new medium includes private cars that are painted with advertisements for products and serve as moving billboards as they travel around. This system, called Publicoche (derived from the words publicidad, meaning advertising, and coche, meaning car), has 75 cars in Madrid. Car owners are paid $230 a month and must submit their profession and “normal” weekly driving patterns. Advertisers pay a basic cost of $29,000 per car per month and can select the type and color of car they are interested in and which owners are most suited to the campaign, based on their driving patterns.
Campaign Execution and Advertising Agencies
The development of advertising campaigns and their execution are managed by advertising agencies. Just as manufacturing firms have become international, so too have U.S., Japanese, and European advertising agencies expanded internationally to provide sophisticated agency assistance worldwide.45 Local agencies also have expanded as the demand for advertising services by MNCs has developed. Thus the international marketer has a variety of alternatives available. In most commercially significant countries, an advertiser has the opportunity to employ a local domestic agency, its company-owned agency, or one of the multinational advertising agencies with local branches. There are strengths and weaknesses associated with each. The discussion regarding firm and agency relations in Chapter 8 on pages 238–239 and Exhibit 8.3 are quite pertinent here. Moreover, the agency–company relationships can be complicated and fragile in the international context—Ford and Disneyland Paris recently changed agencies, for example.
A local domestic agency may provide a company with the best cultural interpretation in situations in which local modification is sought, but the level of sophistication can be weak. Moreover, the cross-cultural communication between the foreign client and the local agency can be problematic. However, the local agency may have the best feel for the market, especially if the multinational agency has little experience in the market. Eastern Europe has been a problem for multinational agencies that are not completely attuned to the market. In Hungary, a U.S. baby care company’s advertisement of bath soap, showing a woman holding her baby, hardly seemed risqué. But where Westerners saw a young mother, scandalized Hungarians saw an unwed mother. The model was wearing a ring on her left hand; Hungarians wear wedding bands on the right hand. It was obvious to viewers that this woman wearing a ring on her left hand was telling everybody in Hungary she wasn’t married. A local agency would not have made such a mistake. Finally, in some emerging markets like Vietnam, local laws require a local advertising partner.
Exhibit 16.8: World’s Top Ten Advertising Agency Organizations

The best compromise is a multinational agency with local branches, because it has the sophistication of a major agency with local representation. Furthermore, a multinational agency with local branches is better able to provide a coordinated worldwide advertising campaign. This ability has become especially important for firms doing business in Europe. With the interest in global or standardized advertising, many agencies have expanded to provide worldwide representation. Many companies with a global orientation employ one, or perhaps two, agencies to represent them worldwide.
Compensation arrangements for advertising agencies throughout the world are based on the U.S. system of 15 percent commissions. However, agency commission patterns throughout the world are not as consistent as they are in the United States; in some countries, agency commissions vary from medium to medium. Companies are moving from the commission system to a reward-by-results system, which details remuneration terms at the outset. If sales rise, the agency should be rewarded accordingly. This method of sharing in the gains or losses of profits generated by the advertising is gaining in popularity and may become the standard. Services provided by advertising agencies also vary greatly, but few foreign agencies offer the full services found in U.S. agencies.
International Control of Advertising: Broader Issues
In a previous section, specific legal restrictions on advertising were presented. Here broader issues related to the past, present, and future of the international regulation of advertising are considered.
Consumer criticisms of advertising are not a phenomenon of the U.S. market only. Consumer concern with the standards and believability of advertising may have spread around the world more swiftly than have many marketing techniques. A study of a representative sample of European consumers indicated that only half of them believed advertisements gave consumers any useful information. Six of ten believed that advertising meant higher prices (if a product is heavily advertised, it often sells for more than brands that are seldom or never advertised); nearly eight of ten believed advertising often made them buy things they did not really need and that ads often were deceptive about product quality. In Hong Kong, Colombia, and Brazil, advertising fared much better than in Europe. The non-Europeans praised advertising as a way to obtain valuable information about products; most Brazilians consider ads entertaining and enjoyable.
European Commission officials are establishing directives to provide controls on advertising as cable and satellite broadcasting expands. Deception in advertising is a thorny issue, because most member countries have different interpretations of what constitutes a misleading advertisement. Demands for regulation of advertising aimed at children is a trend appearing in both industrialized and developing countries.
Decency and the blatant use of sex in advertisements also are receiving public attention. One of the problems in controlling decency and sex in ads is the cultural variations found around the world. An ad perfectly acceptable to a Westerner may be very offensive to someone from the Middle East, or, for that matter, another Westerner. Standards for appropriate behavior as depicted in advertisements vary from culture to culture. Regardless of these variations, concern about decency, sex, and ads that demean women and men is growing. International advertising associations are striving to forestall laws by imposing self-regulation, but it may be too late; some countries are passing laws that will define acceptable standards. The difficulty that business has with self-regulation and restrictive laws is that sex can be powerful in some types of advertisements. European advertisements for Häagen-Dazs, a premium U.S. ice cream maker, and LapPower, a Swedish laptop computer company, received criticism for being too sexy. Häagen-Dazs’s ad showed a couple in various stages of undress, in an embrace, feeding ice cream to each other. Some British editorial writers and radio commentators were outraged. One commented that “the ad was the most blatant and inappropriate use of sex as a sales aid.” The ad for LapPower personal computers that the Stockholm Business Council on Ethics condemned featured the co-owner of the company with an “inviting smile and provocative demeanor displayed.” (Wearing a low-cut dress, she was bending over a LapPower computer.) The bottom line for both these companies was increased sales. In Britain, ice cream sales soared after the “Dedicated to Pleasure” ads appeared, and in Sweden, the co-owner stated, “Sales are increasing daily.” Whether laws are passed or the industry polices itself, advertising and its effect on people’s behavior have engendered international concern.
Advertising regulations are not limited to Europe; there is an enhanced awareness of the expansion of mass communications and the perceived need to effect greater control in developing countries as well. Malaysia consistently regulates TV advertising to control the effect of the “excesses of Western ways.” The government has become so concerned that it will not allow “Western cultural images” to appear in TV commercials. No bare shoulders or exposed armpits are allowed, nor are touching or kissing, sexy clothing, or blue jeans. These are just a few of the prohibitions spelled out in a 41-page advertising code that the Malaysian government has been compiling for more than 10 years.
The assault on advertising and promotion of tobacco products is escalating. In the United States, the tobacco firms have agreed to curtail promotion as part of government-supported class-action lawsuits. The European Union Parliament approved larger health warnings on cigarette packs. Most significantly, the World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a global campaign against the tobacco industry.47 Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland, director-general of the WHO, explains, “Tobacco is a communicable disease—it’s communicated through advertising, marketing and making smoking appear admirable and glamorous.” A worldwide ban of tobacco advertising is just one of the stated goals of the new WHO action.
Product placement within TV programming is another area of advertising receiving the attention of regulators. In the United States, complaints have been aired regarding cigarette smoking in movies and on TV. The product placements avoid some of the regulations in markets like China, where ad time is limited. Because these practices are new to China, the growth rate has been initially dramatic. It will be interesting to follow how product placement advertising will be regulated as the practice proliferates.
The advertising industry is sufficiently concerned with the negative attitudes and skepticism of consumers and governments and with the poor practices of some advertisers that the International Advertising Association and other national and international industry groups have developed a variety of self-regulating codes. Sponsors of these codes feel that unless the advertisers themselves come up with an effective framework for control, governments will intervene. This threat of government intervention has spurred interest groups in Europe to develop codes to ensure that the majority of ads conform to standards set for “honesty, truth, and decency.” In those countries where the credibility of advertising is questioned and in those where the consumerism movement exists, the creativity of the advertiser is challenged. The most egregious control, however, may be in Myanmar (formerly Burma), where each medium has its own censorship board that passes judgment on any advertising even before it is submitted for approval by the Ministry of Information. There is even a censorship board for calendars. Content restrictions are centered on any references to the government or military, other political matters, religious themes, or images deemed degrading to traditional culture.
In many countries, there is a feeling that advertising, and especially TV advertising, is too powerful and persuades consumers to buy what they do not need, an issue that has been debated in the United States for many years. South Korea, for example, has threatened to ban advertising of bottled water because the commercials may arouse public mistrust of tap water.
Summary
An integrated marketing communications (IMC) program includes coordination among advertising, sales management, public relations, sales promotions, and direct marketing. Global marketers face unique legal, language, media, and production limitations in every market. These must be considered when designing an IMC program. During the late 1990s, many large firms moved toward an advertising strategy of standardization. However, more recently even the most multinational companies have changed emphasis to strategies based on national, subcultural, demographic, or other market segments.
The major problem facing international advertisers is designing the best messages for each market served. The potential for cross-cultural misunderstandings is great in both public relations and the various advertising media. The availability and quality of advertising media also vary substantially around the world. Marketers may be unable to enter markets profitably for the lack of appropriate advertising media—for example, some products require the availability of TV.
Advances in communication technologies (particularly the Internet) are causing dramatic changes in the structure of the international advertising and communications industries. New problems are being posed for government regulators as well. Despite these challenges, the industry is experiencing dramatic growth as new media are developed and as new markets open to commercial advertising.